Certain phrases can be utilized to emphasise the required condition in order for something else to happen or be true. These phrases serve as clause markers that denote the beginning of a clause.
A dependent clause is often signalled by these clause markers. Commas may be placed depending on the sequence of clauses used (If starting with a dependent clause, use a comma after it).
Examples of phrasal clause markers:on the proviso that, provided that, on (the) condition that
Examples:
The manager agreed to let the unruly guests stayon the proviso that they will be held liable for any damages at the hotel.
They were allowed entry into the museum on the condition that they leave all their personal belongings at the lobby.
You may come up with your own proposal provided thatthe main points are identical to the original version.
Provided it was in accordance with the law, landlords can impose the raise to the rents this year.
Notice that the last example started with a dependent clause, hence the use of a comma.
Common Mistakes
As mentioned above, clause markers often introduce a dependent clause.
Incorrect
Correct
On condition that she consented they would keep it confidential until it has been finalized.
She consented on condition that they would keep it confidential until it has been finalized.
On condition that he agreed his identity remains concealed.
He agreed on condition that his identity remains concealed.
A prepositional phrase is a part of a sentence that typically begins with a preposition and ends with the object of the preposition. It is more common to find one or more modifiers (describes the object) with the object of the preposition.
The object of a prepositional phrase can be either a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause.
Structure:
Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
Preposition + Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause
A sentence or an independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It is a complete sentence in itself but may appear together with another independent clause. When two independent clausesare linked together, it is called a compound sentence. A comma or a semicolon can be used to connect the independent clauses in a compound sentence.
Joining Independent Clauses
Comma (,)
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to join two independent clauses. Place the comma after the first independent clause and use an appropriate coordinating conjunction afterward.
Examples:
I’m having a blast, and I don’t want it to end.
He was about to run out of gas,so he went straight to a gas station.
I was minding my own business at the coffee shop,andsuddenly a strange lady started talking to me.
Note: This method of using a comma and a coordinating conjunction is best used when there is a relatively simple relationship between the independent clauses. Everything before the comma and after the coordinating conjunction must be able to operate as complete sentences.
Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses that are closely related. No connecting word is necessary in this method.
Examples:
She studied for her driving test for weeks; she felt confident for the exam the next day.
Belen adores her little niece; she is charming and delightful.
My father is an optometrist; he recommended I get a pair of reading glasses.
Note: This method of using a semicolon is best used when there is an evident relation between the two independent clauses. Everything before and after the semicolon must be able to operate as complete sentences.
Use a semicolon with any of these conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc.
Examples:
This activity aims to promote teamwork among colleagues;moreover, it is a good way to disconnect from their stressful daily tasks.
We plan to stay for another day;however, my husband is starting to feel a little sick.
He got injured during the game; therefore, the coach decided to replace him with another player.
An adverb is a word that qualifies or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or even a whole sentence.
Examples:
She left unwillingly.
He appeared to be very perky.
I seldom visit my dentist.
I may have acted too hastily.
Luckily, we had spare cash.
Adverb Placement
It is important to learn the proper placement of adverbs. It is recommended to position the adverb as close as possible to the words they intend to modify. Not doing so can result in an awkward sentence.
Adverbs can be placed in three positions when used to modify a verb.
1. Place the adverb before the subject.
Gently, Alicia laid her baby on the bed.
Carefully, Allan unwrapped his present.
2. Place the adverb before the main verb.
Alicia gently laid her baby on the bed.
Allan carefully unwrapped his present.
3. Place the adverb after the direct object or verb complement.
Alicia laid her baby on the bed gently.
Allan unwrapped his present carefully.
Note: You can add many adverbs in any of these positions according to the context or style.
Placement of adverbs with the verb to be
Place the adverb right after the verb when the main verb of a sentence is the verb “to be“.
Examples:
I amtotally dependable.
She‘snever certain of her work.
Placement of adverbs with auxiliaries and modals
Place the adverb after the first auxiliary or modal and before the main verb when the sentence contains an auxiliary or modal.
Examples:
I‘venever seen him so furious.
They can barely see their own child.
You shouldn’t ever have seen that.
Placement of adverbs in questions
Place the adverb between the subject and the main verb in question forms.
Examples:
Have they ever considered looking for a new partner?
Would she really appreciate it if I backed off?
Adverbs and negatives
Place the adverb after the auxiliary/modal and beforethe main verb in negative sentences.
Examples:
She can’t really fathom the idea of you calling off the wedding.
He doesn’t usually like to fly business class.
She won’t always let people into her inner circle.
Where NOT to put an adverb
DO NOT put an adverb between a main verb and its direct object.
Correct:
She opened the door suddenly.
Incorrect
She opened suddenly the door.
DO NOT put an adverb between a verb and a gerund or infinitive with to.
Correct:
The child started behaving naughtily when he entered secondary school.
Incorrect:
The child started naughtily behaving when he entered secondary school.
An introductory phrase may be used before a question. When you need to use them, you must change the order of the word in the question.
Common introductions:
Do you know…?
Can I ask…?
I’m not sure…
I’d like to know…
I wonder…
Example sentences:
What’s the date today?
Can you tell me what the date today is?
Where did they sleep?
I don’t know where they slept.
Form:
1. If the question has an auxiliary verb, exchangethe positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do the same in sentences with the verb to be.
Example: When can she complete it?
The auxiliary verb is “can” and “she” is the subject. Exchange their positions when adding an introduction.
Do you know when shecan complete it?
Other examples:
Where are they going?
I don’t know where they’re going.
What is she doing?
I wonder what she’s doing.
If the verb is the last word in the sentence, you cannot shorten the verb.
Incorrect: Do you know where it’s? Correct: Do you know where it is?
2. Remove “do“, “does“, and “did” from the question if the question is in the present or past simple. Change the verb ending by using the correct verb tense.
Example:
What did shesay?
Did you hear what she said?
What time do you go to school?
Can you tell me what time you go to school?
Where does he live?
I wonder where he lives.
3. If no question word (where, what, why etc.) is used in a question, use if or whether before the question.
A tag question is a short question we can add to the end of a statement. We use tag questions to confirm the statement.
Rules for Two-Word Tag Questions
a. The subject must be the same in both statement and tag question.
b. The auxiliary verb or main verb in the statement must match the verb in the tag question.
c. If the statement is positive, the tag question is negative, and if the statement is negative, the tag question is positive.
Examples:
They’ve been to Spain, haven’t they?
You won’t be late, will you?
You’re ready, aren’t you?
You aren’t going to school today, are you?
If the main statement has an auxiliary verb in it, use the same verb in the question tag.
Normally there is no auxiliary verb used when positive statements have present and past simpletenses. In this case, we use the auxiliaries does,do or did in the tag question. Present or past simple negative statements definitely have the auxiliaries doesn’t, don’t or didn’t.
Examples:
You go to the gym on Wednesdays, don’t you?
Jaime goes with you, doesn’t he?
You didn’t go to the gym last Wednesday, did you?
When “there is” structure is used, “there” is used in the tag question.
Examples:
There’s nothing to do, is there?
There weren’t any books left, were there?
Something /someone/ nobody /no one/ etc.
When an indefinite pronoun is the subject in the statement, we use “it” in the tag question to mean something or nothing or “they” to mean someone or nobody.
Examples:
Something fell on the floor, didn’t it?
No one came, did they?
Somebody asked for you, didn’t they? Who was it?
When to Use Tag Questions
Tag questions are used to check informationthat we think we know is true. When rising intonation is used in the tag question, it means we are not very sure of the answer. If falling intonation is used, it means we are almost certain of the answer.
Rising tone
You haven’t met her, have you?
I could use yours, could I?
Falling tone
The dress looks great on Marta, doesn’t it?
The teacher wasn’t very happy today, was she?
A simple yes/no is the usual response to a tag question. We can also answer by using yes/no + auxiliary verb.
Exceptions:
Positive statement with positive tag question
It is possible to use a positive statement- positive tag question when we want to express surprise, interest, anger etc., and not to ask real questions.
Examples:
So you’re getting married, are you? That’s great!
So you think that’s funny, do you? Well, we don’t!
He’s coming home today, is he? He has been saying that for months!
Imperative sentences and let’s
We sometimes add “will you?” or “won’t you?” after imperatives when we want people to follow our advice.
Examples:
Don’t stay up late, will you?
Finish it now, will you?
We sometimes add “shall we?” when making a suggestion.
Examples:
Let’s go home, shall we?
Let’s have fish for dinner, shall we?
Leave out pronoun subject and auxiliary verb
We sometimes do not include pronoun subjects, auxiliary verbs and verb to be in the statement when used in very informal speech.
Examples:
Nice party, isn’t it? (It’s a nice party, isn’t it?)
Looking good, are you? (You’re looking good, are you?)
An abstract noun is a type of noun that cannot be recognized using the five senses. These are nouns that you cannot see, smell, taste, hear nor touch. They usually refer to feelings or emotions, states, ideas, events and qualities.
Type of Abstract Nouns
Abstract noun type
Examples
Feelings/emotions
fear,pain,hope
States
denial, confusion, peace
Concepts/ideas
Dedication, knowledge, friendship
Events
youth, birthday, death
Qualities
honesty, courage, beauty
Abstract nouns can be countable or uncountable.
Example:
It was a bad experience. (“experience” is used as a countable noun)
I have enough experience to do the job. (“experience” is used as an uncountable noun)
Many common abstract nouns can be formed by adding a suffix (-ity, -tion, -ment etc.) to nouns.
An apostrophe is not only a punctuation mark but also a part of a word to demonstrate:
a. possession
b. contraction or omission
c. formation of certain plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophe Rules for Possessive Forms
To determine if you need to make a possessive, reconstruct the phrase and turn it into a “of the…” phrase.
Examples:
the people’s voice = the voice of the people
the pants’ seam = the seam of the pants
It is unnecessary to use an apostrophe if the noun after “of” is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture.
Examples:
bed of the hospital = hospital bed
lobby of the office = office lobby
Rules on adding an apostrophe to form possessives:
a. add ‘s to words in singular form even if theyend in -s.
Examples:
the renter’s rights
Travis’s luggage (Travis’ luggage is also acceptable.)
For plural proper nouns that are possessives, use only an apostrophe after the ‘s’. ”
Example:
The Jeffersons’ garden is always well-kept. (The Jeffersons are a family of four.)
b. add ‘s to nouns in plural forms that do not end in -s:
Example:
the men’s football league
the grandchildren’s inheritance
c. add only ‘ to the end of nouns in plural forms that end in -s:
Example:
the communities’ rules
six colleagues’ proposals
d. add ‘s to the end of compound words:
Example:
my great-grandfather’s legacy
her sister-in-law’s property
e. add ‘s to the final noun to show joint ownership of an object:
Examples:
Marta and Jose’s mortgage
Alejandro and Ana’s trip
Showing Omission of Letters
The omission of one or more letters (or numbers) in a word is called a contraction. An apostrophe is used in order to create this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing.
To create a contraction, you must place the apostrophe in the position of the omitted letters.
Examples:
we + have = we’ve (you removed ‘ha’ and replaced it with ‘)
should + have = should’ve (you removed ‘ha’ and replaced it with ‘)
was + not = wasn’t (you removed ‘o’ and replaced it with ‘)
’80 = 1980 (you removed ’19’ and replaced it with ‘)
Forming Plurals of Lowercase Letters
Use an apostrophe and an –s to form the plural of all lowercase letters to make it appear typographically correct.
“five rs” vs. “five r’s“
Example:
How many p’s are there in Philadelphia?
Apostrophes are not necessary in forming the plural of capitalizednumbers and symbols. Capital letters do not usually require an apostrophe in the plural. To avoid confusion in some cases, use an apostrophe before the –s of the plural capitalized letter.
Examples:
He’s got mostly A’s in his report card.
Without the apostrophe the plural form of the capitalized letter would form a different word.
many #s = many octothorpes
His social media feed is full of #s.
the 1980s = the years in the decade from 1980 to 1989
The conservatism movement flourished in the 1980s.
The ’80s was a time of conservative ideology
Apostrophe should not be used for personal pronouns, the relative pronounwho, or for noun plurals.
Possessive pronouns, as the word suggests, already indicates possession therefore the use of apostrophe would make it redundant.
