Category: Grammar

B1 – Intermediate

What do they mean?

• Both = the two (2 things together)
• Either = one of the two
• Neither = not one and not the other

Examples:

• Both my parents work.
• Either road leads to the city.
• Neither option is easy.
• Both of us are tired.
• Either of these is fine.
• Neither of them is here.

1. BOTH

We use both for two things together.

Structure:

• both + plural noun
• both of + object pronoun

Examples:

• Both students are happy.
• Both of them are ready.
• I like both options.

2. EITHER

We use either to mean one of the two.

Structure:

• either + singular noun
• either of + plural noun/pronoun

Examples:

• You can choose either dress.
• Either answer is correct.
• Either of them can help you.

3. NEITHER

We use neither to mean not one and not the other.

Structure:

• neither + singular noun
• neither of + plural noun/pronoun

Examples:

• Neither answer is correct.
• Neither student is late.
• Neither of them is ready.

Important Notes

• Both → plural verb
  • Both boys are playing.
• Either / Neither → singular verb
  • Either boy is playing.
  • Neither boy is playing.

With “or” and “nor”

• Either…or → one choice
  • You can have either tea or coffee.
• Neither…nor → no choice
  • She likes neither tea nor coffee.

B1 – Intermediate

What is “should”?

“Should” is a modal verb we use to give:

1. advice
2. suggestions
3. opinions

It means: “This is a good idea” or “This is the right thing to do.”

Structure

Positive: Subject + should + base verb

I should study.
You should sleep early.

Negative: Subject + should not (shouldn’t) + base verb

You shouldn’t eat too much sugar.
He shouldn’t be late.

Question: Should + subject + base verb?

Should I call her?
Should we go now?

Uses of “should”

1. Giving advice
You should drink more water.
She should rest.

2. Making suggestions
We should watch a movie.
You should try this food.

3.  Giving opinions
People should be kind.
Students should do their homework.

Important Rules

1. Always use the base form of the verb.
   Incorrect: She should goes.
   Correct: She should go.

B1 – Intermediate

“Have” and “Have got” mean the same thing, but “have got” is more informal. Both forms are used to express things like possession, relationships, characteristics, and illnesses.

Examples:

Possession

• I have a new phone.
• I’ve got a new phone.
• They have a big house.
• They’ve got a big house.

Relationships

• She has two sisters.
• She’s got two sisters.
• We have many friends here.
• We’ve got many friends here.

Characteristics

• He has blue eyes.
• He’s got blue eyes.
• The car has a powerful engine.
• The car’s got a powerful engine.

Illness / Conditions

• I have a cold.
• I’ve got a cold.
• She has a headache.
• She’s got a headache.

Questions

• Do you have a pen?
• Have you got a pen?
• How many books do you have?
• How many books have you got?

Negative sentences

• He hasn’t got a car.
• I don’t have any money.
• I haven’t got any money.
• He doesn’t have a car.

These pairs show how both forms mean the same thing, with “have got” sounding more casual in everyday speech.

B1 – Intermediate

An embedded question is a question that is used as a part of another question or a statement.

Uses

1. Part of another question

It’s called an indirect question and is often used to be polite.

Normal question: Where is the supermarket?

Indirect question (with an embedded question): Could you tell me where the supermarket is?

2. Part of a statement

The embedded question is a noun clause and functions as a noun. It can be used as the subject or the object of the main clause.

Normal question: Where did he travel to?

Embedded question in a statement (noun clause is the subject): Where he traveled to was Japan.

Normal question: Where did he travel to?

Embedded question in a statement (noun clause is the object): I don’t know where he traveled to.

Forms

The same rules are applied to embedded questions in statements the same way it is used with embedded questions in indirect questions.

1. If there is a question word, it is retained. 

Ex. Do you know what time the train leaves?

2. If there is no question word, ‘if’ or ‘whether’ is used.

Ex. Do you know if the movie starts at 5:00?

3. We use normal sentence grammar so “do”, “does”, or “did” is not necessary.

Ex. Can you tell me what she said?

Not: Can you tell me what did she say?

4. We use normal sentence word order which is: subject + verb; and not verb + subject.

Ex: Can you explain to me what this means? 

Not: Can you explain to me what means this?

5. A full stop is used instead of a question mark at the end of the sentence.

Ex. I don’t know where the office is. 

Not: I don’t know where the office is?

Verbs Used with Embedded Questions

1. Wonder: He wonders why it rains a lot in April.
2. Know: You don’t know what you’re saying.
3. Remember: She doesn’t remember where her mobile phone is.
4. Be sure: They are sure when the wedding will be.
5. Find out: Let’s find out what their specialty is.
6. Think about: I’m thinking about how he’s going to travel without any money.
7. Forget: I forgot why I did that.

Subject Questions

If the sentence starts with a subject question, there is no need to change the grammar that much because it is almost like a statement.

Normal subject question: Who likes pizza?

Embedded subject question: I don’t know who likes pizza.

Normal subject question: What happened?

Embedded subject question: I am trying to find out what happened.

“Have to” is used in expressing that something is required by rules, duty, or situation. It functions as a verb that is conjugated as “I have to”, “he has to”, “we had to”, “they will have to” in different tenses. 

Put “do” or “does” before “have to” to form a question and the negative. For example, “Do you have to go?” “She doesn’t have to talk.” 

“Have to” works in present, past, and future.

Present: 

She has to eat.

It has to play.

They have to travel.

Past:

He had to send the email.

We had to sing.

Future: 

I will have to see.

We will have to try.

Have to vs Must

“Have to” often signifies external rules or requirements. 

“Must”, on the other hand, is more an internal obligation, and is more versatile for past and future uses. 

“Have to” (or “have got to”) is used for general duties, rules, and necessities.

The negative form “don’t have to” means “not necessary,” and “mustn’t” means “prohibited”. 

Countable vs Uncountable

A noun is a word that is used to identify any of a class of people, places, or things, etc. It can either be countable or uncountable.

A countable noun is something that can be counted individually.

An uncountable noun is a substance, an abstract idea, or a thing that is treated as a whole and cannot be counted.  

Nouns That Can Be Both Countable and Uncountable

There are nouns that can be countable and uncountable at the same time. Usually, they each mean differently.

Here are just a few examples of nouns that can be both countable and uncountable:

Remember: 

Usage is determined by context. As a general rule, if “a/an” or a number is before it, it can be considered as a countable noun. On the other hand, if it is a substance or concept, then it is an uncountable noun. 

A cleft sentence is used to connect something that is already understood to a new information. A cleft sentence is a single message that is divided (cleft) into two clauses, allowing for the focus to be on the new information.

It-Cleft Sentences

The it-clauses is the most common type of cleft clause. The detail that follows it is the information that the listener should focus on. The clause after the it-clause is linked by that. It also has information that is already understood. In informal situations when it is the object of the verb, that is omitted.

Examples:

A: The Joneses’ house was burglarized two nights ago, did it?

B: No. It was the Sandlers’ house that was burglarized!

Old information: a house was burglarized

New information: it was the Joneses’ house

A: They’ve visited Paris, haven’t they?

B: No, it was Madrid (that) they visited!

Old information:  they visited a place

New information: it was Madrid

Is it Taylor Swift’s concert that you are attending this weekend?

Old information: you are attending a concert

New information: Taylor Swift’s concert?

Who is used and not that if the focus is the personal subject. In informal situations when it is the object of the verb, who is omitted.

It was my sister who (or that) they gave the present to. 

Also: It was my sister they gave the present to.

A plural verb is used when a plural subject is the focus. It + be stays singular.

It’s the priests who were officiating their wedding.

In the it-clause, negative structures are used.

It wasn’t the American singer who won the award.

Wh-Cleft Sentences

For a Wh-cleft sentence, it is introduced by what. Why, where, how, etc. can also be used sometimes. The old information can be found in the wh-clause. The new information, on the other hand, can be found in the next clause.

A: I don’t know what to tell them. I don’t know what they want to talk about.

B: What they want to talk about is sports.

Old information: talking about what they want to speak about

New information: they want to talk about sports

A: The dishes in this restaurant aren’t very delicious.

B: What you need to do is order their specialty.  

Old information: there is something wrong with the dishes in the restaurant

New information: you need to order their specialty

An introductory clause is a dependent clause that provides context for the independent clause. Introductory clauses start with adverbs such as after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc. Then, a comma is used to separate the introductory clause from the main clause. 

Sentence Structure

Introductory clause > comma (,) > main clause.

Examples:

If you want to close the deal, you must be patient with these clients.

Because our dog kept getting sick, we brought her to the veterinarian.

Introductory Phrases

An introductory phrase is not a complete clause but it sets the scene, time, or condition for the main action of the sentence. The different introductory phrases are prepositional, appositive, participial, infinitive, and absolute phrases.

Examples:

1. introductory prepositional phrases

Under the starry sky, they promised eternal love for each other.

2. introductory appositive phrase

A kind and obedient daughter, Elizabeth is the apple of the eye of her parents.

3. introductory participial phrase

Walking regularly, my grandparents stay healthy even in their advanced age.

4. introductory infinitive phrase

To be able to go home early, you must be very efficient in doing all your tasks.

5. introductory absolute phrase 

The snow falling heavily, the children went back inside their house.

Introductory Words

Words such as however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile are some common introductory words. These words connect one sentence to the next.

Examples:

The teacher graded the students’ exams. Meanwhile, the students read quietly.

All of the dishes looked appetizing. Still, the skills of chef was put to test.

No Comma Required

Some introductory elements do not need a comma. At times, the subject of a sentence looks like an introductory element when it is actually not.

Here are cases where a comma is not required:

1. After a prepositional phrase with less than five words
2. After a restrictive appositive phrase
3. When separating the subject and the predicate

All of the sentences below seem like they need a comma after the opening segment, (marked with an x), but the first part of the sentence is actually the subject and not an introductory clause.

Gerund and infinitive phrases that function as subjects are easily confused with nonessential introductory phrases.

Examples:

Enduring intensive training for and winning the ice skating competition [x] is one of the biggest accomplishments in Alexandra’s life.

To plan a trip without doing research and planning ahead of time [x] is not advisable.

Losing as much weight and sticking to her healthy habits [x] are some of her New Year’s resolutions.

A comparative clause is a type of subordinate clause that is used in order to express the difference, similarity, or a higher/lower degree of one thing over another. It follows a comparative adjective or adverb and introduced by a specific subordinating conjunction. 

Types

1. Equivalence (Equality)

To express similarity, use the “as…as”. 

Examples: 

They are as driven as the other team is.

You have practice as consistently as you can to improve your speaking skills.

2. Non-equivalence (Inequality)

To express difference, use “more…than“, “less…than“, or the suffix “-er”.

Examples:

The new policy is more lenient than the previous one was.

She is less scared than she was the first time.

The new products are larger than the other ones.

3. Sufficiency & Excess

To indicate degree, use “enough…to” or “too…to“.

Examples:

The paint should be enough to cover the whole wall.

The article was too long to read.

Key Features

1. Ellipsis (Reduction)

To avoid being redundant, the part of the clause that repeats the main verb is omitted.

Full: She is prettier than I am.

Elliptical (formal): She is prettier than I.

Elliptical (informal): She is prettier than me.

2. Substitute Verbs

To maintain a clause structure, the verb that will be repeated is replaced by “do”.

Examples: 

They win more than we do. [Not: They win more than we win.]

She talks faster than I do. [Not: She talks faster than I talk.]

3. Ambiguity

A heavy ellipsis makes a sentence ambiguous.

Unclear: She likes ice cream more than him.

Meaning 1 [ellipsis of “does”]: She likes ice cream more than he likes ice cream.

Meaning 2 [ellipsis of “she likes”]: She likes ice cream more than she likes him.

Clear statement: She likes ice cream more than he does. (Meaning 1)

Adjective Clauses 

An adjective clause or relative clause is used to modify or describe a noun. They are composed of a subject and a verb and are dependent clauses, which means that they do not mean anything without the main clause which is an independent clause. An adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, whose, that, and which. 

Reduced Adjective Clauses 

A sentence is reduced when the same subject in the main clause and the adjective clause are the same. Adjective clauses use relative pronouns like who, which, or that. The reduced adjective clause is the adjective phrase. It does not contain a subject. An adjective phrase neither have a subject nor a verb. What it has is a present participle (base verb + ing) for the active voice or a past participle for the passive voice.

Rules for Reduction

An adjective clause can only be reduced if the relative pronoun (who, which, that) is the subject of the clause. 

1. If the clause has a be-verb (is, am, are, was, were), omit both the relative pronoun and the be-verb. 

Examples: 

Full: The child who is crying there is her daughter.

Reduced: The child crying there is her daughter.

Full: The building that was constructed last year collapsed because of the earthquake.

Reduced:  The building constructed last year collapsed because of the earthquake.

2. For active voice, omit the relative pronoun and change the main verb to the -ing form (present participle). 

Examples:

Full: Students who study in good universities have a lot of opportunities.

Reduced: Students studying in good universities have a lot of opportunities.

Full: The person who called you yesterday was from the bank.

Reduced: The person calling you yesterday was from the bank.

3. For passive voice, delete the relative pronoun and the be-verb and keep the past participle.

Examples:

Full: The thief that was caught in the other town committed many crimes.

Reduced: The thief caught in the other town committed many crimes.

Full: The dishes that were prepared earlier are ready now.

Reduced: The dishes prepared earlier are ready now.

What It Can Turn Into

1. Simple Adjective 

The relative pronoun and the be-verb are deleted and the adjective is retained and is placed before the subject.

Example:

Full: An employee who is motivated has a lot of enthusiasm.

Reduced: A motivated employee has a lot of enthusiasm.

2. Prepositional Phrase

The relative pronoun and the be-verb are deleted and the prepositional phrase is retained.

Examples:

Full: The pizza that is inside the refrigerator is not mine.

Reduced: The pizza inside the refrigerator is not mine.

Full: The person who is in her mind all the time is him.

Reduced: The person in her mind all the time is him.

3. Appositive Phrase 

The relative pronoun and the be-verb are deleted and the appositive phrase is retained.

Examples:

Full: Madrid, which is the capital of Spain, has a population of over 3.4 million.

Reduced: Madrid, the capital of Spain, has a population of over 3.4 million.

Full: Marta, who is the CEO, delivered a speech during the board meeting.

Reduced: Marta, the CEO, delivered a speech during the board meeting.

Common Mistakes

1. Deleting the Relative Pronoun When It is Necessary

Only remove relative pronouns like “who,” “which,” or “that” if they are followed by a be-verb (which is also deleted) or if the object of the clause is the pronoun.

Correct (Full): The woman who helped their family is so benevolent.

Correct (Reduced): The woman helping their family is so benevolent.

Incorrect: The woman helped their family is so benevolent.

2. Improper Verb Construction in Participle Forms

To reduce an active adjective clause, the present participle (the “-ing” form) is used. For a passive adjective clause, the past participle (the “-ed” or third form verb) is used.

Present participle:

Correct: Families traveling together create wonderful memories.

Incorrect: Families travel together create wonderful memories.

Past participle:

Correct: The new managers hired last week introduced themselves to their teams today.

Incorrect: The new managers hire last week introduced themselves to their teams today.

3. Misplacing the Reduced Clause

In order to avoid confusion or misrelated clauses, the reduced adjective clause must be immediately followed by the noun it modifies.

Correct (Full): The window which is in her bedroom needs a curtain.

Correct (Reduced): The window in her bedroom needs a curtain.

Incorrect: The window needs a curtain which is in her bedroom. = The curtain is in the bedroom, not the window.

4. Reducing Clauses with a Subject After the Relative Pronoun

A clause cannot be reduced if the relative pronoun is followed by another subject.

Correct: Does he know the old lady whom I was waving at?

[“Whom” is followed by the subject “I”, hence, it cannot be reduced.]

Incorrect: Does he know the old lady I was waving at? 

5. Changing the Meaning with Commas

The sentence’s meaning can drastically change if commas are misused with reduced clauses.

The couples getting married should register at the city hall.

[Only those couples who are getting married]

The couples, getting married, should register at the city hall.

[Means all couples got married]

6. Attempting to Reduce Certain Pronouns or Adverbs

Clauses cannot be reduced if they start with “whose”, “where”, “why”, or “when”.

Incorrect: We know a company he can work.

Correct: We know a company where he can work.