Category: Grammar

An adverb is a word that qualifies or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or even a whole sentence.

Examples:

Adverb Placement

It is important to learn the proper placement of adverbs. It is recommended to position the adverb as close as possible to the words they intend to modify. Not doing so can result in an awkward sentence.

Adverbs can be placed in three positions when used to modify a verb.

1. Place the adverb before the subject.

2. Place the adverb before the main verb.

3. Place the adverb after the direct object or verb complement.

Note: You can add many adverbs in any of these positions according to the context or style.

Placement of adverbs with the verb to be

Place the adverb right after the verb when the main verb of a sentence is the verb “to be“.

Examples:

Placement of adverbs with auxiliaries and modals

Place the adverb after the first auxiliary or modal and before the main verb when the sentence contains an auxiliary or modal.

Examples:

Placement of adverbs in questions

Place the adverb between the subject and the main verb in question forms.

Examples:

Adverbs and negatives

Place the adverb after the auxiliary/modal and before the main verb in negative sentences.

Examples:

Where NOT to put an adverb

DO NOT put an adverb between a main verb and its direct object.

DO NOT put an adverb between a verb and a gerund or infinitive with to.

Nouns may be grouped according to gender. In English, the four genders of nouns are masculine, feminine, common and neuter.

Masculine nouns refer to words for men, boys and male animals. 

Examples:

Example sentences:

Feminine nouns refer to words for women, girls and female animals.

Examples:

Example sentences:

Common nouns refer to words for members of a class that do not have a specific gender. They can be used for both males and females.

Examples:

Example sentences:

To make it clear, we can add the words male or female before these common nouns.

Neuter nouns refer to words for things that have no gender. They are neither male nor female.

Examples:

Example sentences:

An introductory phrase may be used before a question. When you need to use them, you must change the order of the word in the question.

Common introductions:

Example sentences:

Form:

1. If the question has an auxiliary verb, exchange the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do the same in sentences with the verb to be.

Example: When can she complete it?

The auxiliary verb is “can” and “she” is the subject. Exchange their positions when adding an introduction.

Do you know when she can complete it?

Other examples:

If the verb is the last word in the sentence, you cannot shorten the verb.

Incorrect: Do you know where it’s? Correct: Do you know where it is?

2. Remove “do“, “does“, and “did” from the question if the question is in the present or past simple. Change the verb ending by using the correct verb tense.

Example:

3. If no question word (where, what, why etc.) is used in a question, use if or whether before the question.

Example:

A tag question is a short question we can add to the end of a statement. We use tag questions to confirm the statement.

Rules for Two-Word Tag Questions 

a. The subject must be the same in both statement and tag question.

b. The auxiliary verb or main verb in the statement must match the verb in the tag question.

c. If the statement is positive, the tag question is negative, and if the statement is negative, the tag question is positive.

Examples:

If the main statement has an auxiliary verb in it, use the same verb in the question tag. 

Normally there is no auxiliary verb used when positive statements have present and past simple tenses. In this case, we use the auxiliaries does, do or did in the tag question. Present or past simple negative statements definitely have the auxiliaries doesn’t, don’t or didn’t.

Examples:

When “there is” structure is used, “there” is used in the tag question.

Examples:

Something /someone/ nobody /no one/ etc.

When an indefinite pronoun is the subject in the statement, we use “it” in the tag question to mean something or nothing or “they” to mean someone or nobody.

Examples:

When to Use Tag Questions

Tag questions are used to check information that we think we know is true. When rising intonation is used in the tag question, it means we are not very sure of the answer. If falling intonation is used, it means we are almost certain of the answer.

Rising tone

Falling tone

A simple yes/no is the usual response to a tag question. We can also answer by using yes/no + auxiliary verb.

Exceptions:

Positive statement with positive tag question

It is possible to use a positive statement- positive tag question when we want to express surprise, interest, anger etc., and not to ask real questions.

Examples:

Imperative sentences and let’s

We sometimes add “will you?” or “won’t you?” after imperatives when we want people to follow our advice.

Examples:

We sometimes add “shall we?” when making a suggestion.

Examples:

Leave out pronoun subject and auxiliary verb

We sometimes do not include pronoun subjects, auxiliary verbs and verb to be in the statement when used in very informal speech.

Examples:

What is an abstract noun?

An abstract noun is a type of noun that cannot be recognized using the five senses. These are nouns that you cannot see, smell, taste, hear nor touch. They usually refer to feelings or emotions, states, ideas, events and qualities.

Type of Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns can be countable or uncountable.

Example:

Many common abstract nouns can be formed by adding a suffix (-ity, -tion, -ment etc.) to nouns. 

Form: noun + suffix = abstract noun

Examples:

Example sentences:

An apostrophe is not only a punctuation mark but also a part of a word to demonstrate:

a. possession

b. contraction or omission

c. formation of certain plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophe Rules for Possessive Forms

To determine if you need to make a possessive, reconstruct the phrase and turn it into a “of the…” phrase. 

Examples:

It is unnecessary to use an apostrophe if the noun after “of” is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture.

Examples:

Rules on adding an apostrophe to form possessives:

a. add ‘s to words in singular form even if they end in -s.

Examples:

For plural proper nouns that are possessives, use only an apostrophe after the ‘s’. ” 

Example:

b. add ‘s to nouns in plural forms that do not end in -s:

Example:

c. add only ‘ to the end of nouns in plural forms that end in -s:

Example:

d. add ‘s to the end of compound words:

Example:

e. add ‘s to the final noun to show joint ownership of an object:

Examples:

Showing Omission of Letters

The omission of one or more letters (or numbers) in a word is called a contraction.  An apostrophe is used in order to create this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. 

To create a contraction, you must place the apostrophe in the position of the omitted letters.

Examples:

Forming Plurals of Lowercase Letters

Use an apostrophe and an –s to form the plural of all lowercase letters to make it appear typographically correct.

“five rs” vs. “five r’s“

Example:

Apostrophes are not necessary in forming the plural of capitalized numbers and symbols. Capital letters do not usually require an apostrophe in the plural. To avoid confusion in some cases, use an apostrophe before the –s of the plural capitalized letter.

Examples:

Without the apostrophe the plural form of the capitalized letter would form a different word.

Apostrophe should not be used for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals.

Possessive pronouns, as the word suggests, already indicates possession therefore the use of apostrophe would make it redundant. 

Examples of possessive pronouns are; his, her, its, my, yours, ours.

Indefinite pronouns, on the other hand, can be made possessive. Examples of indefinite pronouns are; one, anyone, other, no one, and anybody.

Examples:

Remember: Its and it’s are different. It’s is the contracted form of “it is” and ‘its’ is a possessive pronoun which means “belonging to it”.”

Bear in mind that just as you do not use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, the same applies to the possessive pronoun its.

Examples:

Proofreading for Apostrophes

Once you have finished writing your paper, it is recommended to proofread for apostrophes. Here are some useful strategies:

If you decide to leave out apostrophes, go through every word that ends in -s or -es to check if they need an apostrophe.

If you notice you used too many apostrophes, check each one of them to see if their usage is justified according to any rule for using apostrophes.

There are different ways to write compound words. They can be written or spelled as two separate words (open compound), joined words forming a single word, or two words joined together by a hyphen (hyphenated compounds).

There are irregularities in compounding that even authorities are not always in agreement in all cases of compounding words. The following examples of the use of hyphen, however, are generally accepted.

1. Use a hyphen if the two or more words are functioning together as a single adjective before the noun. 

Examples:

load-bearing concrete

sugar-coated doughnuts

a well-written article

Omit the hyphen if the noun comes before the  compound modifiers.

The doughnuts were sugar coated.

The article was well written.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers. When spelled out, numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine must be hyphenated.

Examples:

fifty-eight

seventy-three

The well-respected businessman turned sixty-nine this month.

3. Use a hyphen to steer clear of any confusion or an awkward looking string of letters.

Examples:

The message was re-sent. (I resent doing that chores.)

The servants re-lay the carpet. ( The assistant will relay your message to the CEO.)

I am not a fan of the anti-intellectual culture in sports. (instead of antiintelectual)

4.Use hyphen with some prefixes such as ex- meaning former, self-, all-; with -elect as a suffix; to connect a prefix with a capitalized noun; and with figures or letters.

Examples:

ex-convict 

self-control

mid-August

all-consuming

president-elect

ex-Soviet leader

U-turn

mid-1940s

5. Use hyphen in line breaks.

a. When there is not enough space, use hyphen at the end of a line if necessary. This is to indicate that a long word has been broken off. Divide the word between syllables.

Note: Do not divide one-syllable words.

Correct:

Incorrect:

b. Always divide a hyphenated compound word only at the hyphen.

Correct:

      The preparation for the inauguration of the president-

elect started in the wee hours of the morning.

Incorrect: 

      The preparation for the inauguration of the pres-

ident-elect started in the wee hours of the morning.

c. To break words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, use hyphen to separate the consonants; if not, hyphenate at the suffix itself.

drop-ping 

hop-ping

learn-ing

spill-ing

d. Do not separate a word between syllables if only one letter remains or if only two-letter suffixed begin a line.

simply (Do not break this word in a way which leaves ly at the beginning of a new line.)

in-sin-u-ate ( Divide only on either side of the u; do not leave the first letter i- at the end of a line.)

Should have

Use:

1. Should have can be used to show something that you regret doing or not doing. It means that something did not happen but you wished it had happened.

Examples:

I should have left home early.

(I left home late and missed the bus. Now I wish that the past was different.)

He should have practiced more for the game.

(He did not practice enough and lost the game.)

2.  Another use of should have is to talk about something you expected to happen but didn’t happen or only happened later on.

Examples:

The package should have arrived today, but I haven’t heard from the courier yet.

( I was expecting a package, but it is not here.)

I am having a late lunch. It should have been prepared hours ago.

(The food was prepared late. It has just been served.)

The negative form of “should have” is “should not have“.

Form:

Might Have

Use:

1. Might have shows an opinion about a past situation. We believe that the action possibly happened, but we don’t know for sure.

Examples:

He might have left the office.

(It is possible that he has left the office, but it is also possible he has stayed at the office.)    

She might have told him the truth.

(It is possible that she has told him the truth, but it is also possible that she has told him something else.) 

The negative form of “might have” is “might not have“. The contracted form is “mightn’t have“.

Form:

In the positive form, we can use “by now“.

They might have completed it by now.

She might have showered by now.

He might have arrived by now.

In the negative form, can use “yet”.

They might not have completed it yet.

She might not have showered yet.

He might not have arrived yet.

Altering the Source Material in a Quotation

The author has the responsibility to quote another’s words precisely. There is no room for inaccuracy when representing other people’s words as this may be construed as an act of plagiarism. In light of this complexity, there are approved methods for modifying quotes for brevity.

a. Quote Length

If you think that the original quote is too verbose, you may leave out parts of the quote. Use an ellipsis (a punctuation mark consisting of three dots) to replace the words you decided to omit.  

Original Quote: The defense counsel told the jury, “He is not guilty of this crime. I will prove his innocence by presenting facts and evidence that will undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

Omitted Material: The defense counsel told the jury, “He is not guilty of this crime. I will … undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

You have to make certain that the omitted words do not modify the main gist of the original quote. Additionally, make sure that the shortened version of the quote is still grammatically correct.

b. Quote Context

If the quote’s context seems ambiguous, you may include a few words to make it comprehensible. Use brackets to enclose the additional words you included.

Added Material: The defense counsel told the jury, “He [the defendant]is not guilty of this crime. I will prove his innocence by presenting facts and evidence that will undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

c. Quotations within a Quotation

Single quotation marks are used in nested quotations. These are quotations inside of another quotation.

The defense counsel told the reporter, “When I cross examined the prosecution’s witness, he said ‘I didn’t see him in the act.’“

d. Quotation Marks Beyond Quoting

Quotation marks may also be used even if nothing is being quoted. They may be used to indicate irony or some reservations on the part of the author.

The “bloodless” revolution paved the way for the country’s newfound democracy.

Exception:

Use italics instead of quotation marks when words are used as words themselves.

The word schadenfreude is a borrowed word from German meaning “joy over someone’s misfortune.”

Use commas when main clauses are connected by any of the seven coordinate junctions (and, but, for, or nor, so, yet).

Examples:

I would have arrived on time, but I got stuck in traffic.

Sam feels terrible because she was not promoted, yet she continues to slack off.

The doctor was not available yesterday, so I asked for another appointment.

2. Use commas after introductory elements such as clauses, phrases, or words. These are words that appear before the main clause to prepare the readers for the meat of the sentence.

a. Typical words for introductory elements that must be followed by a comma are when, while, because, if, as, since, after, although.

When all attendees arrive, we’ll kick off the meeting.

While I was away on a trip, the burglars broke into my house.

Because she overslept, she missed the train.

Exception: 

When a dependent clause (A clause with a subject and a verb but does not deliver a complete thought.) follows a main clause, there is no need to use a comma except for cases of extreme contrast.

Incorrect: I laughed, when I heard the news.

Correct: I laughed when I heard the news.

Incorrect: I had to rush back home, after the concert.

Correct: I had to rush back home after the concert.

Exception:

When the dependent clause starts with an adverb of concession, a comma is needed. The adverb of concession expresses an idea that is contrary to the main idea.

Example:

He spoke with conviction, although most people in the audience were not persuaded.

b. Participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (more than four words) are some typical introductory phrases that must be followed by a comma.

Having completed the project, he took on a new one.

To secure a parking space, you’d better arrive early.

After the match but before dinner, we went for a walk.

c. Yes, however, and well are common introductory words that must be followed by a comma.

Examples:

Yes, the apartment should be ready by tomorrow.

However, they may not enter the building premises.

Well, I think it is necessary.

3. To separate clauses, phrases, and words that are not vital to the main idea of the sentence, we use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence. 

Clause: That man, who lives next door to me, is the team football coach.

Phrase: The teacher sets high standards for his students. The school, on the other hand, is rather indifferent.

Word: We understand your complaint. In this situation, however, it lacks merit.

Notice that when you omit or change the position of the clauses inside the comma, the sentence still makes sense. These clauses, phrases, and words are nonessential and therefore requires the use of a pair of commas.

4. In contrast to rule no. 3, we should not use commas to separate essential elements of the sentence. These clauses usually begin with the word that. When used after nouns and following a verb that expresses mental action, that clauses are always essential. 

That clauses after nouns:

The table that you bought isn’t sturdy.

The bananas that we harvested are overripe.

That clauses after a verb expressing mental action:

She is hoping that she can travel again soon.

Marta is dreaming that she can marry the man of her dreams.

I wish that this pandemic would soon be over.

5. To separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series requires the use of commas.

The five dominant political parties in Spain at present are Podemos, PSOE, Ciudadanos, Partido Popular, and Vox.

This pandemic brought about high unemployment rate, medical crisis, economic collapse, and heightened xenophobia.

The manager, who is responsible for his department, who has all the resources needed for the project, and who is aware of the project deadline, has failed to achieve the objective.

6. Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives of equal value that modify the same noun. Use a comma to separate these coordinate adjectives. Do not use a comma between the last adjective and the noun. Similarly, do not use a comma with non-coordinate adjectives.

There are two ways to spot coordinate adjectives. These are:

1. When the sentence still makes sense if the adjectives were placed in different orders.

2. When the sentence still makes sense if ‘and’ is used between the adjectives.

Examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

We were entertained by the melodious, distinct music. (coordinate)

She has two tiny Terrier dogs at home. (non-coordinate)

Non-coordinate adjectives are not separated by a comma and are not of equal value. As a rule of thumb, adjectives of size are stated first then adjectives of age, color and material should follow.

Examples:

Jose bought three blue pairs of shoes.

You have to pass by a dusty dirt road.

7. To separate contrasted coordinate elements or to imply a pause or shift.

She was only suggesting, not imposing.

We have gone this way before, haven’t we?

The man seemed oblivious, even perplexed.

8. To separate phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to any other parts of the sentence. These phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without confusing the main thought of the sentence.

Example:

Marta smiled indulgently at the dinner table, waiting calmly for the food. (correct)

Incorrect: Ana smiled at Marta, waiting calmly for the food. (Who is waiting, Ana or Marta?)

Waiting calmly for the food, Ana smiled at Marta. (correct)

Ana smiled at Marta, who was waiting calmly for the food. (correct)

9. To separate all geographical names, items in dates (excluding the month and day), addresses (excluding the street number and name), and titles in names.

The corporate headquarters is in Alcala de Henares, Madrid, and is in the northeastern part of the community.

On July 14, 1776, the US Declaration of Independence was adopted.

Alejandro Gonzales, Ph.D., is handling this class.

If only the month and the year is stated, a comma is not necessary after the month or year.

Example:

The global unemployment rate rose in March 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

10. To switch between the main discourse and a quotation.

Luisa replied bluntly, “You have no business in this matter.”

“They have finally, “he said proudly, “completed the  task long before the deadline.”

11. Wherever necessary to avoid potential confusion or misreading.

To Javier, Manuel is a true leader.

Common mistakes in using commas.

1. Separating the subject from the verb.

Incorrect: A fourteen-year-old in Estonia, is allowed to get married.

Incorrect: One of the key skills of a business analyst, is understanding the business objectives.

2. Separating the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

Incorrect: We prepared the food and drinks, and began to watch the movie.

Incorrect: I walked past the alley, and bumped into an old friend.

3. Separating two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

Incorrect (compound subject): The business developers from your department, and the account managers from mine are teaming up for this event.

Incorrect (compound object): She assured me that the house is still available, and that the property owner wants to speak with me.

4. When a dependent (subordinate) clause  comes after the main clause except for cases of extreme contrast.

Incorrect: The cab driver arrived, while I was running down the hall.

Correct: He was not a very accommodating host, although he invited almost everyone to the party. (This is an example of extreme contrast.)