Category: Grammar

There are different ways to write compound words. They can be written or spelled as two separate words (open compound), joined words forming a single word, or two words joined together by a hyphen (hyphenated compounds).

There are irregularities in compounding that even authorities are not always in agreement in all cases of compounding words. The following examples of the use of hyphen, however, are generally accepted.

1. Use a hyphen if the two or more words are functioning together as a single adjective before the noun. 

Examples:

load-bearing concrete

sugar-coated doughnuts

a well-written article

Omit the hyphen if the noun comes before the  compound modifiers.

The doughnuts were sugar coated.

The article was well written.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers. When spelled out, numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine must be hyphenated.

Examples:

fifty-eight

seventy-three

The well-respected businessman turned sixty-nine this month.

3. Use a hyphen to steer clear of any confusion or an awkward looking string of letters.

Examples:

The message was re-sent. (I resent doing that chores.)

The servants re-lay the carpet. ( The assistant will relay your message to the CEO.)

I am not a fan of the anti-intellectual culture in sports. (instead of antiintelectual)

4.Use hyphen with some prefixes such as ex- meaning former, self-, all-; with -elect as a suffix; to connect a prefix with a capitalized noun; and with figures or letters.

Examples:

ex-convict 

self-control

mid-August

all-consuming

president-elect

ex-Soviet leader

U-turn

mid-1940s

5. Use hyphen in line breaks.

a. When there is not enough space, use hyphen at the end of a line if necessary. This is to indicate that a long word has been broken off. Divide the word between syllables.

Note: Do not divide one-syllable words.

Correct:

Incorrect:

b. Always divide a hyphenated compound word only at the hyphen.

Correct:

      The preparation for the inauguration of the president-

elect started in the wee hours of the morning.

Incorrect: 

      The preparation for the inauguration of the pres-

ident-elect started in the wee hours of the morning.

c. To break words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, use hyphen to separate the consonants; if not, hyphenate at the suffix itself.

drop-ping 

hop-ping

learn-ing

spill-ing

d. Do not separate a word between syllables if only one letter remains or if only two-letter suffixed begin a line.

simply (Do not break this word in a way which leaves ly at the beginning of a new line.)

in-sin-u-ate ( Divide only on either side of the u; do not leave the first letter i- at the end of a line.)

Should have

Use:

1. Should have can be used to show something that you regret doing or not doing. It means that something did not happen but you wished it had happened.

Examples:

I should have left home early.

(I left home late and missed the bus. Now I wish that the past was different.)

He should have practiced more for the game.

(He did not practice enough and lost the game.)

2.  Another use of should have is to talk about something you expected to happen but didn’t happen or only happened later on.

Examples:

The package should have arrived today, but I haven’t heard from the courier yet.

( I was expecting a package, but it is not here.)

I am having a late lunch. It should have been prepared hours ago.

(The food was prepared late. It has just been served.)

The negative form of “should have” is “should not have“.

Form:

Might Have

Use:

1. Might have shows an opinion about a past situation. We believe that the action possibly happened, but we don’t know for sure.

Examples:

He might have left the office.

(It is possible that he has left the office, but it is also possible he has stayed at the office.)    

She might have told him the truth.

(It is possible that she has told him the truth, but it is also possible that she has told him something else.) 

The negative form of “might have” is “might not have“. The contracted form is “mightn’t have“.

Form:

In the positive form, we can use “by now“.

They might have completed it by now.

She might have showered by now.

He might have arrived by now.

In the negative form, can use “yet”.

They might not have completed it yet.

She might not have showered yet.

He might not have arrived yet.

Altering the Source Material in a Quotation

The author has the responsibility to quote another’s words precisely. There is no room for inaccuracy when representing other people’s words as this may be construed as an act of plagiarism. In light of this complexity, there are approved methods for modifying quotes for brevity.

a. Quote Length

If you think that the original quote is too verbose, you may leave out parts of the quote. Use an ellipsis (a punctuation mark consisting of three dots) to replace the words you decided to omit.  

Original Quote: The defense counsel told the jury, “He is not guilty of this crime. I will prove his innocence by presenting facts and evidence that will undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

Omitted Material: The defense counsel told the jury, “He is not guilty of this crime. I will … undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

You have to make certain that the omitted words do not modify the main gist of the original quote. Additionally, make sure that the shortened version of the quote is still grammatically correct.

b. Quote Context

If the quote’s context seems ambiguous, you may include a few words to make it comprehensible. Use brackets to enclose the additional words you included.

Added Material: The defense counsel told the jury, “He [the defendant]is not guilty of this crime. I will prove his innocence by presenting facts and evidence that will undoubtedly rebut the allegations against him.”

c. Quotations within a Quotation

Single quotation marks are used in nested quotations. These are quotations inside of another quotation.

The defense counsel told the reporter, “When I cross examined the prosecution’s witness, he said ‘I didn’t see him in the act.’“

d. Quotation Marks Beyond Quoting

Quotation marks may also be used even if nothing is being quoted. They may be used to indicate irony or some reservations on the part of the author.

The “bloodless” revolution paved the way for the country’s newfound democracy.

Exception:

Use italics instead of quotation marks when words are used as words themselves.

The word schadenfreude is a borrowed word from German meaning “joy over someone’s misfortune.”

Use commas when main clauses are connected by any of the seven coordinate junctions (and, but, for, or nor, so, yet).

Examples:

I would have arrived on time, but I got stuck in traffic.

Sam feels terrible because she was not promoted, yet she continues to slack off.

The doctor was not available yesterday, so I asked for another appointment.

2. Use commas after introductory elements such as clauses, phrases, or words. These are words that appear before the main clause to prepare the readers for the meat of the sentence.

a. Typical words for introductory elements that must be followed by a comma are when, while, because, if, as, since, after, although.

When all attendees arrive, we’ll kick off the meeting.

While I was away on a trip, the burglars broke into my house.

Because she overslept, she missed the train.

Exception: 

When a dependent clause (A clause with a subject and a verb but does not deliver a complete thought.) follows a main clause, there is no need to use a comma except for cases of extreme contrast.

Incorrect: I laughed, when I heard the news.

Correct: I laughed when I heard the news.

Incorrect: I had to rush back home, after the concert.

Correct: I had to rush back home after the concert.

Exception:

When the dependent clause starts with an adverb of concession, a comma is needed. The adverb of concession expresses an idea that is contrary to the main idea.

Example:

He spoke with conviction, although most people in the audience were not persuaded.

b. Participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (more than four words) are some typical introductory phrases that must be followed by a comma.

Having completed the project, he took on a new one.

To secure a parking space, you’d better arrive early.

After the match but before dinner, we went for a walk.

c. Yes, however, and well are common introductory words that must be followed by a comma.

Examples:

Yes, the apartment should be ready by tomorrow.

However, they may not enter the building premises.

Well, I think it is necessary.

3. To separate clauses, phrases, and words that are not vital to the main idea of the sentence, we use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence. 

Clause: That man, who lives next door to me, is the team football coach.

Phrase: The teacher sets high standards for his students. The school, on the other hand, is rather indifferent.

Word: We understand your complaint. In this situation, however, it lacks merit.

Notice that when you omit or change the position of the clauses inside the comma, the sentence still makes sense. These clauses, phrases, and words are nonessential and therefore requires the use of a pair of commas.

4. In contrast to rule no. 3, we should not use commas to separate essential elements of the sentence. These clauses usually begin with the word that. When used after nouns and following a verb that expresses mental action, that clauses are always essential. 

That clauses after nouns:

The table that you bought isn’t sturdy.

The bananas that we harvested are overripe.

That clauses after a verb expressing mental action:

She is hoping that she can travel again soon.

Marta is dreaming that she can marry the man of her dreams.

I wish that this pandemic would soon be over.

5. To separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series requires the use of commas.

The five dominant political parties in Spain at present are Podemos, PSOE, Ciudadanos, Partido Popular, and Vox.

This pandemic brought about high unemployment rate, medical crisis, economic collapse, and heightened xenophobia.

The manager, who is responsible for his department, who has all the resources needed for the project, and who is aware of the project deadline, has failed to achieve the objective.

6. Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives of equal value that modify the same noun. Use a comma to separate these coordinate adjectives. Do not use a comma between the last adjective and the noun. Similarly, do not use a comma with non-coordinate adjectives.

There are two ways to spot coordinate adjectives. These are:

1. When the sentence still makes sense if the adjectives were placed in different orders.

2. When the sentence still makes sense if ‘and’ is used between the adjectives.

Examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

We were entertained by the melodious, distinct music. (coordinate)

She has two tiny Terrier dogs at home. (non-coordinate)

Non-coordinate adjectives are not separated by a comma and are not of equal value. As a rule of thumb, adjectives of size are stated first then adjectives of age, color and material should follow.

Examples:

Jose bought three blue pairs of shoes.

You have to pass by a dusty dirt road.

7. To separate contrasted coordinate elements or to imply a pause or shift.

She was only suggesting, not imposing.

We have gone this way before, haven’t we?

The man seemed oblivious, even perplexed.

8. To separate phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to any other parts of the sentence. These phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without confusing the main thought of the sentence.

Example:

Marta smiled indulgently at the dinner table, waiting calmly for the food. (correct)

Incorrect: Ana smiled at Marta, waiting calmly for the food. (Who is waiting, Ana or Marta?)

Waiting calmly for the food, Ana smiled at Marta. (correct)

Ana smiled at Marta, who was waiting calmly for the food. (correct)

9. To separate all geographical names, items in dates (excluding the month and day), addresses (excluding the street number and name), and titles in names.

The corporate headquarters is in Alcala de Henares, Madrid, and is in the northeastern part of the community.

On July 14, 1776, the US Declaration of Independence was adopted.

Alejandro Gonzales, Ph.D., is handling this class.

If only the month and the year is stated, a comma is not necessary after the month or year.

Example:

The global unemployment rate rose in March 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

10. To switch between the main discourse and a quotation.

Luisa replied bluntly, “You have no business in this matter.”

“They have finally, “he said proudly, “completed the  task long before the deadline.”

11. Wherever necessary to avoid potential confusion or misreading.

To Javier, Manuel is a true leader.

Common mistakes in using commas.

1. Separating the subject from the verb.

Incorrect: A fourteen-year-old in Estonia, is allowed to get married.

Incorrect: One of the key skills of a business analyst, is understanding the business objectives.

2. Separating the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

Incorrect: We prepared the food and drinks, and began to watch the movie.

Incorrect: I walked past the alley, and bumped into an old friend.

3. Separating two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

Incorrect (compound subject): The business developers from your department, and the account managers from mine are teaming up for this event.

Incorrect (compound object): She assured me that the house is still available, and that the property owner wants to speak with me.

4. When a dependent (subordinate) clause  comes after the main clause except for cases of extreme contrast.

Incorrect: The cab driver arrived, while I was running down the hall.

Correct: He was not a very accommodating host, although he invited almost everyone to the party. (This is an example of extreme contrast.)

Every, whole and all are determiners.

Every focuses on all parts that make up the whole thing. It means each one. It is used with singular nouns.

Sentence structure:
Every + singular noun

Examples:

Whole and all express the entire amount of something. Although the same in meaning, they are used differently.

We use ‘all’ with plural countable or uncountable nouns.

Sentence structure:
All + the + noun

Examples:

We use ‘whole’ mostly with singular countable nouns and sometimes with uncountable nouns too before a possessive adjective or the article ‘the’.

Sentence structure:
The + whole + noun.

Examples:

All vs Whole

I ate all the pies. = I ate 100% of all the pies.
I ate the whole pie. = I ate 100% of one pie.

Note: We cannot use whole with plural countable nouns.

Example:
Did you pay the whole bills? – incorrect

Did you pay all the bills? – correct

Unlike countable nouns, uncountable nouns are for abstract ideas and concepts or physical objects that cannot be counted. It may be helpful to know that uncountable nouns are also known as mass nouns.

Here are some common examples of uncountable nouns:

In most cases, they do not have a plural form and a singular verb is always used with uncountable nouns.

Examples:

Note: We cannot use the indefinite articles a/an alone with uncountable nouns. We can only use them when paired with other words to indicate the quantity or measurement of this noun such as a lot of, a bottle of, a piece of, a bag of, etc.

Examples:

Other expressions of quantity includes, some, much, any, etc.

These and those are plural forms of this and that. We use them to identify the things or people we are talking about. ‘These’ is used for persons or things nearby and ‘those’ is for persons or things at a distance. They are both demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives.

Demonstrative pronoun is used as a substitute for the noun or noun phrases and they can only be used for objects and not for people.

Example:

Those people are waiting. ( NOT: Those are waiting.)

These girls are pretty. ( NOT: These are pretty.)

Proper use of ‘these’ and ‘those’ as demonstrative pronouns:

I am eating pastries now and they are delicious.
These are delicious.

The cars I saw on TV are expensive.
Those are expensive.

The stars in the sky are too bright.
Those are too bright.

Demonstrative adjectives are found before the noun. They are used to describe or modify the nouns.

Examples:

These clothes are old.

These pencils are mine.

Do you want to buy these flowers?

Those houses are on sale.

Those bags are stylish.

Are those seats taken?

When we want to say what we like or dislike, we use the verbs love, like and hate.

The verbs Like/Love/Hate is usually followed by a gerund (verb + –ing). We use a gerund after these verbs when the meaning is general or when we talk about the action or the experience.

Sentence structure:

Subject + Like/Love/Hate + gerund [verb + -ing] + the rest of the sentence

Examples:

Sometimes, we use to-infinitive after like, love, and hate if we are talking about a particular time or situation or to express habits or choices.

Example:

I like reading books. – (You like reading books in general.)

I like to read books. – (Reading books is an activity that you choose to do.)

It is more common to use the -ing form after the verbs love and hate.

The passive form is used to change the focus of an action. In this sentence, we are more concerned with or interested in the object that receives the action and not the one who did it. Therefore, the object becomes the subject. 

We use to be and the past participle to form questions in passive. 

Typically, we use wh and how question words in interrogative sentences. However, with the passive voice, some sentences need not a question word.

Examples:

Passive questions without question words in simple present:

Passive questions with question words in simple present:

Passive questions without question words in simple past:

Passive questions with question words in simple past:

Examples of passive questions in other tenses:

Progressive forms:

The passive forms of reporting verbs are commonly used in news reports or when someone else told us about it. We use this structure to deliver information when its accuracy is unverified. 

Examples of reporting verbs are: said, believed, expected, known, reported, alleged, considered, claimed, suggested, etc.

In this lesson, we will focus on the reporting verb “said“.

We can use these passive forms in two ways.

In some conditions, ‘it is supposed to…’ also means ‘it is said to…’

In other conditions, ‘it is supposed to…’ means something is planned or expected to happen but oftentimes didn’t really happen.