Category: Class

When telling a story or an action about the past, we use the past perfect continuous. In most cases, it is used with other narrative tenses like the past simple.

The past perfect continuous shows an ongoing action in the past up until another past action. It is used to tell the events not in its correct sequence.

Example:

A sentence with the correct sequence of events:

Alice was having a lot of fun at the party, so she decided to stay up late.                                                 

A sentence with the events not in order:

Alice decided to stay up late because she had been having a lot of fun at the party.

The ongoing event that took place prior to the other verb is in the past perfect tense.

Put any adverbs between had and been.

She had only been studying in the university for a semester before she got into trouble.

Sam had already been sleeping for an hour.

Form:

A defining relative clause is used to give information about a noun in a sentence. This information is needed by the listener or reader to understand the whole thought in the sentence.

A lawyer is a person who represents ordinary people in a legal proceeding.

The man who helped carry my stuff has just left.

We use who to provide more details about a person.

A policeman is a person who helps keep the street safe.

 We use which or that to provide more details about a thing.

A ring is a thing which you wear around your finger as an accessory.

The dress that I wore last summer is beautiful.

We use where to provide more details about a place.

That’s the restaurant where we had our first date.

The city where I was born is a popular tourist destination.

Non-defining relative clauses provide key information therefore commas (,) are not needed.

If the object of the sentence is the noun which the relative clause describes (commonly found at the beginning of the sentence), the words that, which or who can be omitted.

Examples

1. The girl who is staring at me is my former girlfriend.

The girl is the subject of the sentence. You cannot omit who.

2. The woman (who) Andy has been dating for years is my cousin.

Andy is the subject of the sentence.

The woman is the object of the sentence.

When rewritten: Andy has been dating a woman for years. The woman is my cousin.

Here, Who can be omitted.

3. The house you showed me is in a quiet neighborhood.

You is the subject of the sentence.

The house is the object of the sentence.

When rewritten: You showed me a house. The house is in a quiet neighborhood.

Which / that is unnecessary.

4. The car which is on the left side is a luxury car.

The car is the subject of the sentence.

When rewritten: The car is on the left side. It’s a luxury car.

Which / that is necessary.

Words or phrases that are used to be limiting, emphatic, or dramatic are called negative adverbials. They can be found at the beginning of sentences and the inversion of the following subject and verb is required. It puts an emphasis on what is being said and makes the statement striking and surprising.

Seldom do I visit him.

Only later did I find out the truth.

Never have I done such a thing.

Since it sounds formal, it is more widely used in written English. The failure to invert the subject and verb after the negative adverbial is the most common pitfall people make. In this grammar lesson, we will discuss some of the common negative adverbials, their proper usage in a sentence and some common mistakes.

Only

Only later, only when, only then, only by, only once, only now, only after, only if.

Only then did I notice that I had left my bag at home.

Only when he finished eating did he offer some food to the guests.

No, Not, Never

Never, never before, not only, not until, no more, in no way, on no account, no longer, no sooner, at no time

Not since I entered college have I had so much pressure.

Not until I pass the exam shall I take things easy.

Rarely and Seldom.

Seldom do I make an apple tart.

Rarely do I have the chance to read fiction.

Common errors in Inversion:

1. Not being able to invert the subject and verb:

Incorrect: Never before I have done something courageous.

Correct: Never before have I done something courageous.

2. Incorrect Inversion:

Such a mistake is often committed when inversion is made in the main clause upon forming a subordinate clause with the negative adverbial in some sentences.

Incorrect: Only when had I left the house I noticed I didn’t have my car keys with me.

Correct: Only when I had left the house did I notice I didn’t have my car keys with me.

Quantifiers are words or phrases used with a noun to indicate quantity. It often gives information about the noun on how many or how much it is.

Form

Quantifiers can be found before countable and uncountable nouns.

quantifier + countable/uncountable noun

Quantifiers + countable noun 

Here is a list of some quantifiers that are used with countable nouns.

A number of
Many
A few/few/very few
Several
A large number of
A majority of

Quantifiers + uncountable noun

Here is a list of some quantifiers that we use with uncountable nouns.

much
a little/little/very little *
a bit (of)
a great deal of
a large amount of
a large quantity of

Quantifier + Both Countable and Uncountable

Here is a list of some quantifiers that we use with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Some

Any

A lot of

Lots of

Plenty of

All

Enough

More/Most

Less/Least

No/None

Not Any

• A lot of is often used instead of much in some situations.

She spent a lot of money on shoes.

X: She spent much money on shoes.

• Little and few without the article a mean not much or not many. They imply a negative idea.

He has little patience.
Jack has few choices.

• Little and few with the article a imply a positive meaning. They could mean some, a small amount, or a small number.

I will take a nap. I have a little time before my next meeting.

Quantifiers Exercise

Answer this exercise on quantifiers.

1. In my opinion, ___ practice is good for you.

a. all

b. enough

c. any

2. I’m sorry, but there’s ___ sugar for your coffee. Is it alright with you?

a. no

b. any

c. enough

3. I can eat ___ things, but I’m allergic to shellfish.

a. any

b. most

c. more

4. If you want to sleep early, maybe you should have ___ screen time.

a. any

b. less

c. enough

5. If you want to help the community, you can donate ___ money.

a. any

b. some

c. a few

6. We don’t have ___ players.

a. enough

b. some

c. much

7. Can we have three ___ teas, please?

a. more

b. less

c. enough

8. When she was a child, she used to drink ___ milk.

a. most

b. much

c. lots of

9. Generally, I don’t like vegetables but I eat ___ potatoes.

a. a lot of

b. much

c. a number of

10. We have _____ time.

a. several

b. a number of

c. plenty of

Find answers for this exercise here.

See also: All/All of – Most/Most of – No/None of and Much, Many, Little, Few, A Lot, Plenty

For additional information on this topic, check out this British Council lesson.

For other English grammar lessons, go to this page.

Negation

We can use negative words, phrases and clauses to express a contradiction or denial on a certain topic. Negation can be made in many ways. In most situations, we use a negative word such as no, not, never, none, etc. 

Here are some example sentences:

A: Are you staying home tonight?

B: No. I am going out tonight. ( No = I am not staying home tonight.)

Janice doesn’t go to work everyday. ( It is not true that Janice goes to work everyday.)

No and not are the most common negative words. There are other ways to express negation with the use of other negative words such as never, no one, neither, none, nor, nothing, nowhere, nobody, etc.

No one came to her party.

Neither Mike nor John went to the mall.

Nobody wants to share an idea.

None of them enjoyed the movie.

Most teachers nowadays don’t use traditional teaching methods.

Prefixes and suffixes can also be used to express negation.

Prefixes ( dis-, non-, un-)

Suffixes ( less, free )

He has been disloyal to her since the day they met.

It is a stress-free environment.

Some other words that can be used to express negative or somewhat negative statements are:

barely, rarely, hardly, seldom, little, scarcely, few

They barely talked.

I seldom see him.

We use negation more commonly in oral language than in written form. In a face-to-face conversation, the use of negation can make the statement less direct.

I’m not certain if I am in the right office. Is this Mr. Smith’s office? ( This is a less direct way than to ask, Is this the right office?/Am I in the right office?)

Forming negative statements, questions and imperatives

Negative statements

Negative statements are formed by the use of nor or n’t after be,auxiliary and modal verbs.

n’t is the abbreviation of not.

n’t can be added to be, to modal verbs ( except may ) and to auxiliary verbs ( do and have ) without a space.

Won’t is the shortened negative form of will.

Cannot is the unshortened form of can + not.

Sam isn’t going to the party. She is not feeling good about herself.

They hadn’t realized the severity of the problem.

He does not believe in marriage.

I don’t go to the gym everyday.

He can’t be that lonely.

It might not be that expensive.

Negative questions

Not or n’t are used to form negative questions. In the absence of a modal verb or be, auxiliary verb do + n’t is used.

(don’t, do not, doesn’t, does not, didn’t):

What don’t they notice?

Why didn’t you go there?

Won’t you get a promotion?

Isn’t that your husband?

Negative imperatives

do + not or don’t + the base form of a verb are used to form negative orders or commands.

Do not start until you are told.

Don’t sit next to him. Find another seat.

Negation: two negatives

Two negatives (double negatives) in the same clause is not accepted in standard English.
Some words (never, no one, nothing, nowhere, etc.) already have a negative meaning therefore the use of another negative with the verb is unnecessary.

There was nothing else I could do.

Not: There wasn’t nothing …

I have nowhere else to go.

Not: I haven’t nowhere….

The use of not with the verb requires the use of words such, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere,as ever, in place of nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere, never:

She hasn’t told anyone about it.

Not: She hasn’t told no one about it.

Although some speakers use two negatives in the same clause,it is still considered incorrect by most people.

Not…. I don’t think

We can use reporting verbs such as suppose, think and imagine in the end position after the reported clause. In these cases, they both may have a negative verb.

She’s not married, I don’t think. ( or I don’t think she is married.)

Not: I don’t think he’s not a teacher.

I won’t be very tired by the end of this week, I shouldn’t suppose so. ( or I shouldn’t suppose I will be very tired by the end of this week.)

Not: I shouldn’t suppose I won’t be very tired.

Not is used in front position in some cases where it is followed by a reduced clause ( a clause with something removed ut which is obvious) that also has a negative form:

A: Have you done your homework?

B; Not now, I haven’t. ( I haven’t done my homework.)

A transitive verb is an action word that uses an object as a receiver of the action. The transitive verbs are underlined in the following example sentences:

I appreciate your concern.

We have to retain indispensable employees.

I couldn’t find them.

Sally adores children.

What are Direct and Indirect Objects?

If the object follows the transitive verb, it is a direct object. It usually answers the question “what” or “whom”?

The receiver of the direct object is the indirect object. It tells to whom or for whom the action is for.

Example:

Janice gave her sister a dress.

Janice is the subject.

gave is the verb.

What was given? A dress.

A dress is the direct object.

Who received the dress (indirect object)? Her sister.

Her sister is the indirect object.

A direct object and an indirect object can be used in the same sentence with some transitive verbs.

Jane bought him a present.

him [indirect object]                        a present [direct object]

They gave her a homework.

her [indirect object]                       a homework [direct object]

The following are some common verbs that can be used with a direct and indirect object:

Verb                                               Example

Pass                                               She passed him the bowl of soup.

Leave                                            Leave me a note so that I’ll know what to do.

Cost                                               Her arrogance cost her her friends.

Wish                                              They wished us the best of luck.

Lend                                              She lent me her winter clothes.

Buy                                                She buys her a cup of coffee.

Make                                             I made us some breakfast.

Sell                                                She sold me her house.

Show                                            Alex showed me his new car.

Offer                                            They offered her the highest position in the company.

Intransitive verbs

It is a verb that does not have a direct object. In the sentence, there is no mention of who or what received the action performed.

Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:

The children are playing.

They are studying in Bristol University.

They smiled sweetly.

We studied overnight.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

There are many verbs that can both be transitive and intransitive. Here are some examples:

His mother sang a lullaby. [transitive]

She usually sings alone.  [intransitive]

She left her home at six o’clock this morning. [transitive]

She left at six o’clock. [intransitive]

Here are some common verbs that can both be used as a transitive and intransitive:

Verb           Transitive                                                   Intransitive

change       Her fame totally changed her.               My school has changed a lot.

start            She started the whole fight.                   The party starts at 7 p.m.

run              She runs a hair salon.                               She ran across the hall.

do               She has to do her homework soon.        I am doing just fine.

set              She set a meeting for the bosses.           The sun sets at 6pm.

stop           We tried to stop her from making           The music stopped.

a big mistake.

open         Open the door and let the cool                The store opens at 9am.

 wind in.

close         Close the door and leave the bags          Restaurants in the city close early.

outside.

move       Could you move your things to the           The cars were moving slowly.

left please?

write        Please write me a letter soon.                   She writes legibly.

wash        Please wash your clothes.                          I usually wash at night.

A modal continuous is just one variety of the many modal forms.We use it to express A-A-C-L-O-O-P-R-S (ability, advice, capacity, likelihood, obligation, order, permission, request, suggestions).

Form

To form modal continuous, simply remember this formula.

modal + be + -ing

Past Modal Continuous

For past modal continuous, use should, would, could, might. Then add be and of course, an -ing verb.

Use

• Use past modal continuous when you are not sure if the subject is doing an action. However, this action is possible, necessary, or likely.

I could be living in Vietnam then. I can’t remember now.
We should be keeping an eye on his progress at school.
She would be regretting this decision.
His flashy personality might be ruining his blind date.

Present Modal Continuous

For present modal continuous, use can, must, may, will, shall. Then add be and of course, an -ing verb.

Use

• Use present modal continuous when you are not sure if the subject will be in the middle of doing an action or is planning to take an action in the future. However, this action is possible, necessary, or likely that he is or will.

The young girls must be thinking about their spring dance.
The audience will be sneering at his corny jokes.
The child may be imbibing his parents’ habits.
He shall be demonstrating proper first aid for sprains.
Her eyes can be stinging from the smoke.

Modal Continuous Exercise

Answer this exercise on modal continuous.

1. I ______ this song right now.

a. should be memorizing

b. may be memorizing

c. would be memorizing

2. I have no idea where she is. She _____ with friends in New York.

a. will be staying

b. should be staying

c. must be staying

3. Too much pressure from the management _____ to her stress level.

a. will be contributing

b. might be contributing

c. should be contributing

4. He _____ with his friends if not for his girlfriend’s request for him to stay with her.

a. shall be going

b. would be going

c. must be going

5. Our guests _____ earlier that we thought.

a. may be arriving

b. could be arriving

c. can be arriving

6. They ____ the fireworks display now.

a. shall be watching

b. could be watching

c. might be watching

7. We are not sure we can visit grandma next week. We _____ on holiday.

a. might be going

b. can be going

c. should be going

8. Your students _____ for you.

a. may be waiting

b. could be waiting

c. should be waiting

9. I didn’t see him yesterday. He ______ from me.

a. might be hiding

b. shall be hiding

c. will be hiding

10. It was very quiet. The children _____.

a. could be studying

b. would be studying

c. must be studying

Find the answers to this exercise here.

See also: Modals of Deduction and Speculation and Modals: Can’t Have, Needn’t Have.

For additional information on this topic, check out this Cambridge Grammar lesson.

For other English grammar lessons, go to this page.