Category: Class

Modals of Deduction and Speculation

Use modals of deduction and speculation when we want to make a guess about something. We choose the verb depending on how sure we are.

Deducing and speculating about the present

Combine modals of deduction and speculation must, might, could, may and then an infinitive verb to deduce and speculate about an action that happens in the present.

modal (present) + infinitive

Below is a sample scenario using modals of deduction and speculation in present. Know the proper modal to use depending on how true you think that an action occurs.

You are waiting for Amanda with another friend,  Danny.
You ask Danny this question: Where is Amanda?
Danny speculates:

She must be on her way here. (fairly sure this is a good guess)

She might arrive soon. (maybe)

She could be lost. (maybe)

She may be in the wrong place. (maybe)

She can’t be at home. (fairly sure this isn’t true)

Note that in this case, the opposite of ‘must’ is ‘can’t’.

Will / won’t

  • We use will and won’t when we are very sure.

He will be at school now.

Should / shouldn’t

  • We use should and shouldn’t to make an assumption about what is probably true, if everything is as we expect.

They should get there by now.

It shouldn’t take long to drive here.

  • This use of should isn’t usually used for negative events. Instead, it’s a better idea to use will.

Correct: The temperature will be too high today.

Incorrect: The temperature should be too high today.

Can

  • We use can for something that is generally possible, something we know sometimes happens.

The cost of living can be very high in big cities.

  • We do not use can to talk about specific possibilities.

Correct: Mom could be at the supermarket.

Incorrect: Mom can be at the supermarket.

Deducing and speculating about the past

Put together modals of deduction and speculation must, might, could, may, can’t and have and then a past participle verb to deduce and speculate about an action that occurred in the past.

modal (past) + have + past participle

It must have rained last night.

She might / might not have registered for the seminar.

They could have finished the training if not for the technical issues.

You may / may not have done the dishes this morning.

I can’t have wished ill of another person.

Below is a sample scenario using modals of deduction and speculation in the past. Know the proper modal to use.

Roy asked: Where was Sandra last night?
Maria speculated:

Sandra must have forgotten about our appointment.

She might have worked late.

Sandra could have lost track of time.

She may have gotten sick.

She can’t have stayed at home.

Will

  • We use will for something in the past that we are very certain happened.

The parcel will have arrived before now.

Should / Shouldn’t

  • We use should and shouldn’t have to make an assumption about something that has probably happened, if everything is as we expect.

The plane should have left by now.

We shouldn’t have gone in that direction.

Could

  • We can use could + infinitive to talk about a general possibility in the past.

Labor could be low in the sixteenth century.

  • This is not used to talk about specific possibilities in the past. Instead, we use could + have + past participle.

He could have been working late.

(not: ‘could be’. As this is a specific possibility, ‘could be’ is present tense)

Modals of Deduction and Speculation Exercise

Answer this exercise on modals of deduction and speculation.

1. Their shop is easy to locate. It’s right around the corner.  She _____ miss it!

a. might

b. can’t 

c. must

2. Chris’s things are still here so he _____ gone home.

a. shouldn’t have

b. might have

c. can’t have

3. What a great show! They _____ go on a world tour.

a. can’t 

b. might

c. must

4. She can’t remember the suspect’s face. But she _____ seen a distinguishing feature.

a. couldn’t have

b. must have

c. may have

5. It _____ be sugar-free. It has ice cream in it.

a. can’t

b. may not

c. must

6. Clara and Laura weren’t replying to my chat messages. Maybe they went to the movies or they _____ gone to a spa.

a. might have

b. couldn’t have

c. must have

7. Anthony is very stressed out lately. I am not sure but he _____ gone on vacation.

a. can’t have

b. might have

c. must have

8. Your sisters tell different versions of what happened. One of them _____ be lying.

a. must

b. may

c. could

9. I _____ known about this faulty wiring. I would have noticed it.

a. couldn’t have

b. must have

c. might have

10. Look at this piece of art. Maybe it’s Monet or it _____ be Van Gogh.

a. would

b. could

c. couldn’t

Find the answers to this exercise here.

See also: Modals Continuous and Modals: Might, May, Will, Probably.

For additional information on this topic, check out this British Council lesson.

For other English grammar lessons, go to this page.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives

We use adjectives to describe nouns and pronouns.  Adjectives can come before nouns or after linking verbs.

Before the noun:

He bought a brand new car.

What a brilliant story!

After a linking verb :

He seems disappointed.

Dogs are loyal.

The skyscrapers became old.

(Note:  Linking verbs are verbs like ‘be’, ‘become’ and ‘seem’ which are not actions but instead link the subject to an adjective, noun or phrase that gives us more information about the subject.)

We make the comparative and superlative of adjectives by adding either ‘-er / -est’ or using ‘more / most’.

She is smart.

She is smarter than her sister.

She is the smartest person in the class.

  • Adverbs are used to describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. They are often (but not always) made by adding ‘ly’ to the adjective.

I type slowly (‘slowly’ tells us about the verb ‘walk’).

They worked  quickly.

We make the comparative and superlative forms of adverbs by using ‘more / most’.

She dances gracefully.

She dances more gracefully than her friend.

She dances most gracefully in the class.

  • Adverb or Adjective?It’s important to remember to use an adjective after a linking verb. However, this can be tricky as some verbs can be used as both normal verbs and as linking verbs :

 

  • She tasted the hot soup carefully. (Here we are talking about the action of ‘tasting’  and using taste as a normal verb, so we need an adverb.)
  • The soup tastes  good. (Here we are using ‘taste’ as a linking verb, to describe the soup. We    can replace ‘tastes’ with ‘is’ and the sentence still makes sense. So, we need an adjective.)

 

  • Irregular formsNormally, we make an adverb by adding ‘ly’ to an adjective.

 

This is a quiet room. (adjective)          She spoke quietly (adverb)

This juice is bad. (adjective)                   He sings badly (adverb)

 

If the adjective ends in ‘y’, we change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add ‘ly’. If the adjective ends in ‘le’, we drop ‘e’ and add ‘y’.

 

He looks very happy. (adjective)            They danced happily. (adverb)

It’s  a gentle dog. (adjective)                  She stroked the dog gently. (adverb)

 

  • However, there are some exceptions:

 

adjective                                   adverb

 

That’s a fast car.                                      She drives fast.

She was early for our appointment.      She arrived early.

He is always late.                                    He got up late this morning.

(‘lately’ is also an adverb but means “recently)

The story is good.                                     She did well on the exam.

Math is hard.                                           She studies hard.

(‘hardly’ is also an adverb, but means ‘almost none’)

 

  • There are also some adjectives that end in ‘ly’ and don’t have an adverb form. Instead we use ‘in a —way’. These are friendly, lovely, lonely, lively, and silly.

He talked to me in a friendly way.

  • Good / well‘Well’ can be confusing because it is both the adverb form of ‘good’, and an adjective that means ‘healthy and fine’.

My grandmother is well (‘well’ is an adjective that means ‘healthy and fine’).

She did the work well (‘well’ is an adverb meaning ‘in a good way’).

  • Of course, we also use ‘good’ as an adjective.

This  dish is good!

He can speak good Japanese.

  • Hard / hardly‘Hard’ is both an adjective and an adverb.

The bed is hard. (= adjective, meaning ‘not soft’ or ‘difficult’).

He works hard. (= adverb, meaning ‘with a lot of effort’).

‘Hardly’ is also an adverb, but it means ‘almost nothing’ or ‘almost none’.

She hardly works. (= She does almost no work).

We have hardly any money. (= We have almost no money).

  • Late / lately‘Late’ is an adjective and an adverb. There is also an adverb ‘lately’, which means ‘recently’.

I’m late. (= adjective, meaning ‘not on time’).

He arrived late. (= adverb, meaning ‘not on time’).

I’ve been working a lot lately. (= an adverb meaning ‘recently’).

 

 

 

Small American Towns at Night

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B2 – Upper intermediate

When the night falls, some cities transform into something else.

Take a look at some photographs capturing nocturnal sights in some small American towns.

Small American Towns at Night

Discuss:

1. Choose one photo from the series of photographs in this article. Describe it and explain why you chose it.
2. How would you differentiate the night time views in small towns and big cities?
3. How is night time like in the city that you live in? How is the atmosphere different during the day?
4. What might be the good and bad things about night time in small towns and big cities?

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3 Tips to Boost Your Confidence

C1 – Advanced

People admire individuals who are self-confident. Self-confident people are risk-takers and are not afraid to face their challenges. They have an air of optimism around them and are comfortable with themselves.

The video below shows us how we can have that self-confidence to carry us through the day.

Watch the video carefully then be ready to answer some discussion questions:

Discuss:

  1. How is confidence defined in the video?
  2. What are several factors that impact self-confidence?
  3. How confident do you feel? Are you full of it, or do you wish you had more of it?
  4. To what extent are you aware of your weaknesses and strengths? How do you feel about your weaknesses?
  5. How can you improve your self-confidence?
  6. What are the factors that build your self-confidence?
  7. If you have a low self-confidence, what do you guess are the contributing factors?