B2 – Upper Intermediate

A catenative construction is when one verb is followed by another verb (in to-infinitive or -ing form).

Catenative comes from “chain”—verbs are linked together.

A complex catenative construction involves:

• multiple verbs chained together, and/or
• objects + verb complements within the chain

Why This Matters

Complex catenative constructions help you:

• express nuance and precision
• sound more natural in academic/professional English
• combine multiple ideas into one sentence

Basic Pattern

Before going complex, take a look at the basic pattern:

• I want to eat.
• She enjoys reading.

Now, let’s expand:

Verb + Object + To-Infinitive

Structure: Subject + Verb + Object + to + Verb

Examples:

• I want him to finish the work.
• She told me to wait outside.
• They allowed us to enter early.

Insight: The object becomes the “subject” of the second verb.

Verb + -ing / To-Infinitive (Meaning Changes)

Some verbs change meaning depending on the form:

• I stopped smoking. (quit the habit)
• I stopped to smoke. (paused in order to smoke)
• She remembered locking the door. (memory)
• She remembered to lock the door. (responsibility)

These create subtle but important semantic differences.

Multi-Verb Chains (True Complex Catenation)

Structure: Subject + Verb1 + Verb2 + Verb3…

Examples:

• He seems to want to start working soon.
• I plan to try to learn to code this year.
• She appears to have been trying to fix the issue.

Note:

• Each verb adds aspect, intention, or modality
• These chains are common in formal and academic writing

Perfect & Progressive Forms in Chains

You can embed tense/aspect inside the chain:

• He seems to have finished the task.
• They appear to be working late.
• She claims to have been waiting for hours.

This allows very precise time relationships.

Causative + Catenative Structures

Structure: have / get + object + past participle / to-infinitive

Examples:

• I had him fix the problem.
• She got them to agree.
• We had the system updated.

These often express control, persuasion, or arrangement.

Adjective + Catenative Complement

Not only verbs—adjectives can start chains:

• I am happy to help.
• She is likely to succeed.
• They are eager to begin working.

Common Advanced Verbs in Catenation

Frequently used in formal English:

• seem, appear, tend, manage, fail, attempt, claim, deserve

Examples:

• He tends to avoid answering difficult questions.
• She managed to complete the project on time.

Common Errors

Incorrect: He suggested me to go.

Correct: He suggested going. / He suggested that I go.

Incorrect: I made him to do it.

Correct: I made him do it. (bare infinitive)

B1 – Intermediate

Plural-only nouns are nouns that are always used in the plural form.
They do not have a singular form or are almost never used in singular.

They always use:

• plural verbs (are, were, have, etc.)
• no “a/an”

Common Plural-Only Nouns

Things with two parts

These often come in pairs:

• pants / trousers
• shorts
• jeans
• glasses
• scissors
• shoes

Examples:

• My pants are new.
• These scissors are sharp.
• His glasses are on the table.

Other plural-only nouns

• clothes
• police
• people
• stairs
• thanks

Examples:

• The police are here.
• My clothes are dirty.
• The stairs are very steep.

Using “a pair of”

If you want to count them, use “a pair of”.

Structure:
a pair of + plural noun + singular verb

Examples:

• This pair of shoes is expensive.
• That pair of scissors is broken.

Now the verb is singular (is), because “pair” is singular.

Important Rules

Incorrect:

• a pants
• a scissors

Correct:

• some pants
• a pair of pants

Quick Comparison

• The pants are black. 
• This pair of pants is black. 

B1 – Intermediate

Just 

Use just for something that happened a short time ago.

Meaning: Very recently / a moment ago

Structure:
Subject + has/have + just + past participle

Examples:

• I have just finished my homework.
• She has just left the house.

Already 

Use already when something happened earlier than expected.

Meaning: Before now / earlier than expected

Structure:
Subject + has/have + already + past participle

Examples:

• I have already eaten.
• They have already seen that movie.

Yet 

Use yet in questions and negative sentences.

Meaning: Until now / up to this time

Structure:

• Questions: Have/Has + subject + past participle + yet?
• Negative: Subject + has/have not + past participle + yet

Examples:

• Have you finished your homework yet?
• I haven’t finished my homework yet.

Still

Use still when something is continuing.

Meaning: Continuing, not finished

Structure:
Subject + is/are/am + still + verb-ing
OR
Subject + still + verb (for simple present)

Examples:

• I am still studying.
• She still works here.

Quick Comparison

• I have just eaten. → a moment ago
• I have already eaten. → sooner than expected
• I haven’t eaten yet. → until now (not finished)
• I am still eating. → continuing 

B1 – Intermediate

Past Participle

A past participle is a verb form used with:

• Perfect tenses (have/has/had)
• Passive voice
• Sometimes as adjectives

It is usually the third form of a verb.

Regular Verbs

For most verbs, the past participle ends in -ed.

Examples:

Irregular Verbs

Some verbs are different — you must memorize them.

Examples:

Past Participles in Perfect Tenses

We use past participles with:

• have / has (present perfect)
• had (past perfect)

Structure:

Subject + have/has/had + past participle

Examples:

• I have finished my homework.
• She has eaten already.
• They had left before I arrived.

Past Participles in Passive Voice

We use past participles with be (am/is/are/was/were).

Structure:

Subject + be + past participle

Examples:

• The cake was baked yesterday.
• The door is closed.
• The book was written by her.

Past Participles as Adjectives

Past participles can describe nouns.

Examples:

• a broken window
• a tired student
• fallen leaves  

B1 – Intermediate

Prediction

A prediction is when you say what you think will happen in the future.

Example:

• It will rain tomorrow. 

Using “Will” for Prediction

We use will when:

• We decide something at the moment of speaking
• We make a guess or opinion

Structure:

Subject + will + base verb

Examples:

• I think it will rain later.
• She will be happy.
• People will travel to Mars someday. 

Common words used:

• I think…
• I believe…
• Probably…

Using “Going To” for Prediction

We use going to when:

• There is evidence now (we can see or know something).

Structure:

Subject + am/is/are + going to + base verb

Examples:

• Look at the clouds! It is going to rain. 
• He is going to fall! (You can see it happening)
• They are going to win (based on strong evidence)

Quick Comparison: “Will” vs “Going To”

Compare:

• Just an opinion: I think it will rain.
• Clear evidence: Look at the sky! It is going to rain.

B1 – Intermediate

No, none of, any, nothing, and nobody are indefinite pronouns and determiners. They are used to express absence, negation, or an unspecified quantity. They serve as modifiers or subjects/objects, typically indicating “not any” or “not one”.

No

Use “no” + noun to say something does not exist.

Structure: no + noun

Examples:

• I have no money.
• There is no water in the bottle.
• She has no friends here.

Tip:

• “No” makes the sentence negative, so don’t use “not” again.
  x: I don’t have no money.
  o: I have no money.

None of

Use none of + the / my / these / those + noun

Meaning: zero from a group

Examples:

• None of the students are here.
• None of my friends came.
• None of the water is clean.

With pronouns:

• None of them are ready.
• None of us understand.

Tip:

• Countable plural → usually are
• Uncountable → is

Any

Use “any” in questions and negative sentences.

Structure: any + noun

Examples:

• Do you have any questions?
• I don’t have any money.
• Is there any milk left?

Tip:

In positive sentences, “any” means it doesn’t matter which:

• You can choose any color.

Nothing

Nothing means no thing.

Structure: nothing (no noun after it)

Examples:

• I see nothing.
• There is nothing in the bag.
• He said nothing.

 Tip:
x: I don’t see nothing.
o: I see nothing.
o: I don’t see anything.

Nobody

Nobody means no person.

Structure: nobody (no noun after it)

Examples:

• Nobody is at home.
• I know nobody here.
• Nobody called me.

Tip:
x: I don’t know nobody.
o: I know nobody.
o: I don’t know anybody.

Quick Comparison