Category: Class

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Not all intensifiers combine freely with all adjectives. The choice depends on:

• whether the adjective is gradable or non-gradable
• collocational restrictions (what sounds natural)
• semantic precision and nuance

Gradable vs Non-Gradable Adjectives

Gradable adjectives

These allow degrees (very, quite, slightly, etc.)

• very tired
• slightly cold
• extremely happy

Non-gradable (absolute/extreme) adjectives

These already express a maximum or absolute state:

• freezing (not very freezing)
• exhausted (not very exhausted)
• perfect (not very perfect)

Instead, use maximizing intensifiers:

• absolutely freezing
• completely exhausted
• totally perfect

Key Intensifier Types

a. Amplifiers (increase intensity)

Maximizers (100% scale)

• absolutely, completely, totally, utterly

Examples:

• absolutely certain
• completely wrong
• utterly ridiculous

Boosters (high degree, but not absolute)

• very, really, so, extremely, highly

Examples:

• very tired
• extremely important
• highly unlikely

b. Downtoners (reduce intensity)

• slightly, somewhat, rather, fairly, a bit

Examples:

• slightly awkward
• fairly interesting
• rather confusing

Strong Collocational Pairings

Some intensifiers strongly prefer specific adjectives:

“Highly” + evaluative adjectives

• highly effective
• highly successful
• highly unlikely

Not: highly big

“Deeply” + emotional states

• deeply concerned
• deeply offended
• deeply disappointed

“Bitterly” + negative emotions

• bitterly disappointed
• bitterly cold
• bitterly opposed

“Utterly” + negative/extreme adjectives

• utterly absurd
• utterly useless
• utterly devastated

“Closely” + analytical/relational adjectives

• closely related
• closely connected
• closely aligned

Subtle Meaning Differences

Compare:

• very big → neutral
• absolutely enormous → emphatic, dramatic

• quite good → moderate (BrE often = “fairly”)
• quite amazing → strong (with non-gradable adjectives)

“Quite” is not stable in meaning—depends on adjective type.

Register and Formality

Some intensifiers signal formal style:

• highly significant (formal)
• deeply regrettable (formal)

Others are more informal:

• really tired
• super weird
• so good

Adjectives That Resist “Very”

Many advanced learners overuse very.

Replace “very” with stronger adjectives:

• very big → enormous
• very tired → exhausted
• very good → excellent

Or:

• very important → extremely important / crucial

Gradability Shifts

Some adjectives can be both gradable and non-gradable depending on meaning:

• The solution is quite simple. (gradable: moderately simple)
• The answer is quite correct. (non-gradable: completely correct)

Intensifier Stacking (Marked Usage)

• really very tired (possible, but marked)
• so incredibly beautiful (emphatic, expressive)

Stacking is common in speech, but less common in formal writing.

Precision Through Collocation

Compare:

• Correct: strongly recommend 
• Correct: highly recommend 
• Incorrect: very recommend

Some verbs/adjectives require specific intensifiers due to convention.

Key Insight

At an advanced level, intensifiers are less about grammar rules and more about:

• collocation (what sounds natural)
• semantics (degree and scale)
• register (formal vs informal tone)

Mastery comes from noticing patterns—not memorizing isolated rules.

Common Errors

incorrect: very freezing
correct: absolutely freezing

incorrect: completely very good
correct: extremely good / really good

incorrect: highly happy
correct: very happy

incorrect: deeply big
correct: very big

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Ergative Verb

An ergative verb, also known as a labile verb can appear in both:

• a transitive structure (with a direct object), and
• an intransitive structure (where the object becomes the subject)

Crucially, the same participant is involved in both forms.

Diagnostics

To identify an ergative verb:

1. Can the object become the subject without passive marking?
2. Does the meaning remain plausible without an agent?
3. Does it describe a change of state?

Basic Alternation Pattern

Transitive:

• She broke the glass.

Intransitive:

• The glass broke.

“The glass” is:

• Direct object in the first sentence
• Subject in the second

This alternation is called the causative–inchoative alternation.

Key Property

Unlike passives:

• The glass was broken. (passive: implies an agent)
• The glass broke. (ergative: no agent implied)

Ergative forms often suggest spontaneity or lack of external cause.

Common Ergative Verbs

Change-of-state verbs

• break, melt, freeze, crack, shatter, dissolve

Change-of-position/state

• open, close, start, stop, roll, turn

Examples:

• She opened the door. / The door opened.
• They melted the butter. / The butter melted.
• He rolled the ball. / The ball rolled.

Semantic Constraints

Not all verbs alternate.

Typically ergative:

• involve physical or observable change
• allow affected entity to be subject

Not ergative:

• Correct: She kicked the ball.
• Incorrect: The ball kicked.

Because “kick” requires an agent—it doesn’t describe a spontaneous change.

Subtle Meaning Differences

Even when both forms are grammatical, meaning can shift:

• She closed the door. → intentional action
• The door closed. → may imply automatic or unintentional action

Ergative vs Passive 

Compare:

• The window broke. (ergative)
• The window was broken (by someone). (passive)

Extended Patterns

a. With adverbs (cause implied)

• The door suddenly opened.
• The ice slowly melted.

Still ergative, even with implied cause.

b. Instrument subjects (borderline cases)

• The key opened the door.

Not ergative—this is still transitive with a non-human agent.

Cross-Linguistic Insight

The term “ergative” comes from ergative-absolutive languages, where:

• subjects of intransitive verbs pattern like objects of transitive verbs

English is not ergative, but these verbs show ergative-like behavior.

Less Obvious Ergative Verbs

Some are less intuitive:

• The price increased. / They increased the price.
• The temperature dropped. / They dropped the temperature.
• The software crashed. / The update crashed the software.

Ergative vs Middle Voice 

• This book sells well. (middle voice)
• The book sold quickly. (ergative-like)

Middle voice focuses on general property, not a specific event.

Common Errors

Incorrect: The cake baked by itself. (when meaning passive)
Correct: The cake baked. (ergative, neutral)
Correct: The cake was baked. (passive, agent implied)

Incorrect: The ball kicked.
Correct: The ball rolled.
Correct: The ball bounced.

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Indirect Object

An indirect object (IO) typically represents the recipient, beneficiary, or affected participant of the action, while the direct object (DO) is the thing transferred.

She gave him a book.
(IO = him, DO = a book)

At an advanced level, what matters is:

• Which verbs allow indirect objects?
• When the structure is possible?
• How meaning shifts with different constructions?

Diagnostic Tests

To confirm an indirect object:

• Can it move to a “to/for” phrase?
• Can it appear before the direct object?
• Does the verb allow double object structure?

Two Structures

a. Double Object Construction (DOC)

• She sent me an email.
• They offered him a job.

Pattern: Subject + Verb + IO + DO

b. Prepositional Construction

• She sent an email to me.
• They offered a job to him.

Pattern: Subject + Verb + DO + to/for + IO

Semantic Differences 

These forms are not always interchangeable.

a. “To” → Transfer

• give, send, lend, hand, pass
  → movement of something

b. “For” → Benefactive meaning

• buy, make, cook, find
  → doing something for someone
• She baked him a cake. (= for him)
• She baked a cake for him.

However, it is incorrect to say:

• She baked a cake to him.

Verbs That Allow or Reject DOC

Allow both structures:

• give, send, offer, teach, tell

Typically do not allow DOC:

• explain, describe, suggest, mention, introduce

Incorrect: She explained me the problem.
Correct: She explained the problem to me.

Reason: these verbs involve communication of content, not transfer of an object.

Information Structure & Emphasis

DOC vs prepositional form affects focus and flow:

• She gave him a book. → focus on recipient
• She gave a book to him. → focus on object or contrast

Use DOC when:

• Recipient is short, known, or important

Use prepositional form when:

• Object is long/heavy
• Recipient needs emphasis or contrast

Pronoun Constraints

Pronouns strongly prefer DOC:

• Incorrect: She gave me it. 
• Correct: She gave it to me.
• Rare, dialectal, usually avoided: She gave me it. 

Rule: If DO is a pronoun → use prepositional structure

Passivization Patterns

Both objects can sometimes become subjects:

Active:

• She gave him a book.

Passive:

• He was given a book.
• A book was given to him.

Notes:

• “He was given…” is more natural in spoken English
• “A book was given…” is more formal

Indirect Objects vs Prepositional Objects

Not all “to/for + noun” phrases are indirect objects.

Compare:

• She gave him a book. → indirect object
• She gave a book to him. → indirect object (alternate form)

However:

• She spoke to him. → NOT an indirect object
• She depends on him. → NOT an indirect object

Key distinction:

• True indirect objects alternate with DOC
• Prepositional objects cannot

Dative Alternation

The shift between:

• Give him a book.
• Give a book to him.

is called dative alternation.

Not all verbs participate, and constraints include verb semantics, length and weight of phrases, and definiteness and givenness.

Verb semantics

Incorrect: She explained me the problem.

Correct: She explained the problem to me.

Length/weight of phrases

✔ Short + short (both fine):

She gave him a book. / She gave a book to him.

✔ Long DO → prepositional preferred:

Correct: She gave a detailed report about the company’s financial collapse to him.

Awkward: She gave him a detailed report about the company’s financial collapse.

✔ Long IO → DOC preferred:

Correct: She gave the student who had been waiting for hours a copy.

Heavier ending: She gave a copy to the student who had been waiting for hours.

Definiteness and givenness

I finally gave him the book.

I gave the book to a stranger I met on the train.

She gave the manager a report. (manager known) / She gave a report to a manager. (new/unspecified)

I didn’t give the book to John—I gave it to her.

Edge Cases & Subtleties

a. Idiomatic DOC

• Give it a try.
• Pay me a visit.
• Wish you luck.

These don’t always allow alternation:

• Wish luck to you. (less natural)

b. Abstract Transfer

• She taught me patience.
• They showed us kindness.

These are not physical objects, but they are still treated like DOs.

Ambiguity Avoidance

• She sent a letter to her friend in Paris. (Who is in Paris?)

Prepositional forms can create ambiguity DOC avoids:

• She sent her friend in Paris a letter.

Common Errors

Incorrect: He suggested me a plan.
Correct: He suggested a plan to me.
Correct: He suggested that I follow a plan.

Incorrect: She described me the situation.
Correct: She described the situation to me.

Incorrect: They bought to me a gift.
Correct: They bought me a gift.
Correct: They bought a gift for me.

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Direct Object

A direct object is the element that receives the action of a transitive verb. At an advanced level, the key is not just what it is—but how it behaves across structures.

Test: Ask “what?” or “whom?” after the verb—but be careful, this doesn’t always work cleanly with complex constructions.

Structural Variations

a. Noun Phrases

• She rejected the proposal outright.
• They discussed several controversial issues.

The object can be expanded with modifiers, determiners, and embedded clauses.

b. Clausal Direct Objects

Entire clauses can function as direct objects:

• I believe that he is mistaken. (that-clause)
• She denied having seen the document. (-ing clause)
• They decided to postpone the meeting. (infinitive clause)

c. Bare Clause Objects (Zero “that”)

• I think you’re wrong.
• She said she’d call later.

Common in spoken and informal written English.

Object vs Complement 

Advanced learners often confuse direct objects with subject complements:

• She became a doctor. (not a direct object)
• She met a doctor.  (direct object)

Rule: If the verb is linking (become, seem, appear), the following element is a complement, not an object.

Double Object Constructions

Some verbs take two objects:

• She gave him a gift.

Structure:

• Indirect object (recipient)
• Direct object (thing given)

Alternative:

• She gave a gift to him.

Not all verbs allow both forms:

• Correct: give, send, offer
• Incorrect: explain (We cannot say: explain me the problem)

Object Shift & Weight

Heavier objects tend to move:

• She explained the situation to me. (preferred)
• She explained to me the situation that had been developing over several years. (less natural)

This relates to end-weight principle.

Passivization

Only direct objects typically become subjects in passive sentences:

• Active: They approved the proposal.
• Passive: The proposal was approved.

With double objects:

• She gave him a gift →
  • He was given a gift.
  • A gift was given to him.

Subtle differences in focus and formality.

Objects in Complex Predicates

a. Object + Complement

• They elected him president.
• She painted the door red.

Structure:

• Direct object + object complement (renames/describes it)

b. Object + Infinitive

• I want you to leave.
• They forced him to resign.

“You” and “him” are objects of the main verb but subjects of the infinitive clause.

Verbs That Look Transitive but Aren’t

Some verbs appear to take objects but don’t:

• She slept a deep sleep. (cognate object; stylistic)
• He smiled a strange smile.

These are rare and often literary.

Ellipsis and Implied Objects

• Have you eaten? (object omitted: “food”)
• I already finished. (context supplies object)

Common in conversation; object is understood but not expressed.

Idiomatic and Fixed Expressions

• Take advantage (of something)
• Make sense
• Catch a break

The object may be part of a fixed phrase, not freely replaceable.

Diagnostic Strategies

Instead of relying only on “what/whom,” use:

• Passivization test → Can it become the subject?
• Pronoun substitution → Can it become it/them?
• Verb type check → Is the verb transitive?

Common Errors

Incorrect: She suggested me to go.
Correct: She suggested that I go / suggested going

Incorrect: They discussed about the issue.
Correct: They discussed the issue

Incorrect: He explained me the rules.
Correct: He explained the rules to me