Category: Class

Fermented Food Expel Nanoplastics

B1 –  Intermediate 

Scientists say tiny plastic particles are everywhere, including in our bodies. Microplastics are small, and nanoplastics are even smaller.

A new study in South Korea found that bacteria from the food kimchi can help remove nanoplastics from the body. The bacteria attach to the plastic in the gut, and it leaves the body as waste. This may stop the plastic from building up in organs.

Nanoplastics are a growing health concern because their effects are still unknown. People may take in thousands of tiny plastic pieces each year. Scientists believe this new discovery could help reduce plastic in the body.

Read the article about how fermented food like kimchi can help expel nanoplastics from our body.

https://breakingnewsenglish.com/2604/260402-kimchi-nanoplastics-2.html

Vocabulary Questions:

  1. What does “fermented” mean? “A new study has found that bacteria from the fermented Korean dish  kimchi can help to take nanoplastics out of the body.” Use the word in a sentence. Give a synonym. 
  2. What does “side effect” mean? “Nanoplastics are worrying the medical community. There are many side effects.” Use the term in a sentence. Give a synonym. 
  3. What does “tackle” mean? “The lead researcher said fermented  foods could be “a new biological approach” to tackle the nanoplastic problem.” Use the word in a sentence. Give a synonym. 

Discussion Questions:

  1. What is your opinion about what this study found about kimchi?
  2. What is your opinion and reaction to this, “Our body has 7 grams of plastic. This is about the size of a credit card.“?
  3. What are your thoughts on this, “Fermented  foods could be a new biological approach to tackle the nanoplastic problem.”?
  4. Do you worry about microplastics and nanoplastics and their effects on our health? Share your insights.
  5. Do you like fermented food? Why or why not?

Germany Wants Workers from India 

B1 –  Intermediate 

Germany has a shortage of workers because many older people are retiring and fewer children are being born. There are not enough young workers to fill the jobs.

To solve this, Germany wants to bring in workers from other countries, especially India, which has many young people. It needs workers in engineering, healthcare, manufacturing, and IT, including many nurses and caregivers.

Read the article about how Germany wants to fix the labor shortage problem by asking Indians to come work in their country.

https://breakingnewsenglish.com/2603/260326-germany-labour-shortage.html

Vocabulary Questions:

  1. What does “renewable energy” mean? “Germany is also a leader in renewable energy, pharmaceuticals, and financial services.” Use the term in a sentence. Give a synonym. 
  2. What does “labor surplus” mean? “There’s a huge labour surplus in India.” Use the term in a sentence. Give a synonym. 
  3. What does “area” mean here, “It is struggling to find enough skilled people to work in many areas.”? Use the word in a sentence. Give a synonym. 

Discussion Questions:

  1. What are the pros and cons of hiring Indian workers for Germany?
  2. What is your opinion on this, “The government has made it easier for people to get visas to work in Germany.”?
  3. What causes labor shortage?
  4. What are other solutions to labor shortage in a country?
  5. Do you have the same problem in your country? Discuss it.

Negative Adverbs


B2 – Upper Intermediate

Negative adverbs are used to limit, restrict, or negate meaning, often adding emphasis, formality, or rhetorical force. At advanced levels, they are especially important for inversion, tone, and subtle distinctions.

1. Core Negative Adverbs

Common forms:

  • never
  • rarely / seldom
  • hardly / barely / scarcely
  • no sooner
  • little (formal, meaning “not much”)
  • not only (paired structure)
  • in no way / on no account / under no circumstances

These are often called negative or semi-negative adverbials.

2. Inversion After Negative Adverbs

When a negative adverb starts a sentence, we use subject–auxiliary inversion (like a question form).

Structure:

Negative adverb + auxiliary + subject + main verb

Examples:

  • Never have I seen such chaos.
  • Rarely does she complain about anything.
  • Hardly had we arrived when it started raining.
  • Under no circumstances should you open that door.

Notes:

  • Use an auxiliary verb (do/does/did) if none exists:
    • X: Rarely she goes there.
    • O: Rarely does she go there.

3. “Hardly / Scarcely / Barely” + “when”

These express that one event happens immediately after another.

Structure:

Hardly/Scarcely/Barely + had + subject + past participle + when + clause

Examples:

  • Hardly had I finished speaking when he interrupted me.
  • Scarcely had they met when they became close friends.

4. “No sooner” + “than”

Similar meaning, slightly more formal.

Structure:

No sooner + had + subject + past participle + than + clause

Example:

  • No sooner had she left than the phone rang.

5. “Little” as a Negative Adverb (Formal)

“Little” can mean “not at all” or “hardly”, often with inversion.

  • Little did he know that everything was about to change.
  • Little have we understood the true impact of this decision.

This is very common in storytelling and formal writing.

6. Emphatic Structures with “Not only…”

Structure:

Not only + auxiliary + subject + verb, but also + clause

Example:

  • Not only did she win, but she also broke the record.
  • Not only is he talented, but he is also incredibly disciplined.

7. Double Negatives (Advanced Nuance)

In standard English:

  • X: I don’t know nothing (non-standard, dialectal)
  • O: I don’t know anything

However, advanced learners should recognize:

  • Double negatives can be used rhetorically:
    • This is not uncommon (= somewhat common)
    • He is not unwilling to help (= somewhat willing)

These create softened or nuanced meanings.

8. Negative Adverbials of Restriction

These add strong emphasis and are common in formal or academic English:

  • In no way is this acceptable.
  • At no point did they explain the risks.
  • On no account should this be repeated.

9. Register and Style

StructureRegister
Never have I seen…Formal / literary
I have never seen…Neutral
Rarely does he…Formal
He rarely…Neutral

Inversion makes it more dramatic, formal, or rhetorical.

10. Common Mistakes

X: Never I have seen such a thing
O: Never have I seen such a thing

X: Hardly I had arrived when…
O: Hardly had I arrived when…

X: No sooner I had finished than…
O: No sooner had I finished than…

Noun Phrase

B2 – Upper Intermediate

What is a noun phrase?

A noun phrase (NP) is a group of words that functions like a noun in a sentence. It can act as a subject, object, or complement.

 At its core, a noun phrase has:

  • a head noun (main word)
  • optional modifiers (before or after the noun)

Examples:

  • The newly implemented government policy on climate change has received criticism.
  • Students enrolled in online learning programs often require additional support.
  • The proposal to reduce costs through automation was approved.
  • The data collected during the experiment was inconclusive. 

Structure

(Pre-modifiers) + Head noun + (Post-modifiers)

Example:

  • The extremely talented young musician from Spain

Breakdown:

  • Pre-modifiers: the, extremely talented, young
  • Head noun: musician
  • Post-modifier: from Spain

1. Pre-modification (before the noun)

These add detail and are common in formal/academic English.

a. Determiners

  • articles: the, a, an
  • possessives: my, her, their
  • quantifiers: some, many, several

Those three books

b. Adjectives (including strings)

  • a beautiful old Italian building
     Order matters (opinion → age → origin → noun)

c. Noun modifiers

  • a university student
  • a government policy decision

 This is common in academic and formal writing.

d. Participle modifiers

  • a rising trend (present participle)
  • a broken window (past participle)

 2. Post-modification (after the noun)

These make noun phrases more complex and precise.

a. Prepositional phrases

  • the book on the table
  • students in the class

b. Relative clauses

  • the man who lives next door
  • a theory that explains the data

c. Non-finite clauses

  • the decision to leave early (to-infinitive)
  • students studying abroad (-ing clause)
  • the issues discussed yesterday (-ed clause)

d. Apposition

This is composed of two noun phrases side by side, referring to the same thing.

  • Dr. Reyes, the lead researcher, presented the findings.

Advanced Features

1. Noun phrase complexity (dense information)

Formal writing often uses long, compact noun phrases:

  • The rapid increase in global energy demand
  • Recent developments in artificial intelligence research

This avoids long clauses and makes writing more concise.

2. Nominalization

 This means turning verbs/adjectives into nouns.

  • decide → decision
  • analyze → analysis

Example:

  • The analysis of the data was thorough.

3. Embedded noun phrases

  • The idea [that the system might fail] is concerning.
  • The claim [that he made] was false.

 Common Mistakes

Overloading pre-modifiers

  • a new big red expensive Italian sports car design project

 This can sound unnatural—balance with post-modifiers.

Missing clarity

  • Long noun phrases can be confusing if poorly structured.

Mitigators with Comparatives

B2 – Upper Intermediate

What are mitigators?

Mitigators are words or phrases that soften or weaken the strength of a statement. With comparatives, they make differences sound less direct, less strong, or more polite.

Examples:

  • The revised proposal is slightly more feasible in practice.
  • Her second draft is a bit more coherent, though still unclear in parts.
  • This approach is somewhat less efficient, but easier to implement.
  • The new policy is not much more effective than the previous one.
  • His explanation is no clearer than before.

Common mitigators with comparatives

1.  “a bit / a little / slightly”

Used to show a small difference

  • This task is a bit easier than the last one.
  • She’s slightly more confident now.
  • The new model is a little faster.

2.  “somewhat / rather”

 Used for moderate, often subjective differences

  • His explanation was somewhat clearer this time.
  • The results are rather more complicated than expected.

3.  “kind of / sort of” (informal)

Used to soften opinions, often in spoken English

  • This design is kind of better than the old one.
  • It’s sort of more efficient, I think.

4.  “a little bit / just a bit”

Extra softening, often for politeness

  • Your tone sounds just a bit harsher here.
  • This version is a little bit more formal.

5.  “not much / not a lot”

 Used with negatives to minimize differences

  • This version is not much better than the previous one.
  • The two solutions are not a lot different.

6.  “no + comparative”

Emphasizes zero difference (strong but controlled tone)

  • This method is no more effective than the old one.
  • He is no better qualified than his colleague.

Uses

 To sound more polite

  • Direct: This plan is worse.
  • Mitigated: This plan is slightly worse.

 To avoid strong criticism

  • Direct: Your argument is weaker.
  • Mitigated: Your argument is a bit weaker.

 To show uncertainty or caution

  • The data is somewhat more reliable now.

 Tone differences

  • Stronger: much / far / a lot
    • This is much better.
  • Softer (mitigated): a bit / slightly
    • This is slightly better.

 Advanced speakers choose based on tone and intention, not just meaning.

Quantifiers: Both, Either, Neither

B1 – Intermediate

What do they mean?

  • Both = the two (2 things together)
  • Either = one of the two
  • Neither = not one and not the other

Examples:

  • Both my parents work.
  • Either road leads to the city.
  • Neither option is easy.
  • Both of us are tired.
  • Either of these is fine.
  • Neither of them is here.

1. BOTH

We use both for two things together.

Structure:

  • both + plural noun
  • both of + object pronoun

Examples:

  • Both students are happy.
  • Both of them are ready.
  • I like both options.

2. EITHER

We use either to mean one of the two.

Structure:

  • either + singular noun
  • either of + plural noun/pronoun

Examples:

  • You can choose either dress.
  • Either answer is correct.
  • Either of them can help you.

3. NEITHER

We use neither to mean not one and not the other.

Structure:

  • neither + singular noun
  • neither of + plural noun/pronoun

Examples:

  • Neither answer is correct.
  • Neither student is late.
  • Neither of them is ready.

Important Notes

  • Both → plural verb
    • Both boys are playing.
  • Either / Neither → singular verb
    • Either boy is playing.
    • Neither boy is playing.

With “or” and “nor”

  • Either…or → one choice
    • You can have either tea or coffee.
  • Neither…nor → no choice
    • She likes neither tea nor coffee.

Modal – Should

B1 – Intermediate

What is “should”?

“Should” is a modal verb we use to give:

  1. advice
  2. suggestions
  3. opinions

Examples:
I should wake up early.
You shouldn’t skip breakfast.
Should we start now?
They should listen to the teacher.

It means: “This is a good idea” or “This is the right thing to do.”

Structure

Positive: Subject + should + base verb

I should study.
You should sleep early.

Negative: Subject + should not (shouldn’t) + base verb

You shouldn’t eat too much sugar.
He shouldn’t be late.

Question: Should + subject + base verb?

Should I call her?
Should we go now?

Uses of “should”

1. Giving advice
You should drink more water.
She should rest.

2. Making suggestions
We should watch a movie.
You should try this food.

3.  Giving opinions
People should be kind.
Students should do their homework.

Important Rules

  1. Always use the base form of the verb.
    Incorrect: She should goes.
    Correct: She should go.

2. Same form for all subjects (I, you, he, she, they, etc.)

He should study.

They should study.

Have and Have Got

B1 – Intermediate

“Have” and “Have got” mean the same thing, but “have got” is more informal. Both forms are used to express things like possession, relationships, characteristics, and illnesses.

Examples:

Possession

  • I have a new phone.
  • I’ve got a new phone.
  • They have a big house.
  • They’ve got a big house.

Relationships

  • She has two sisters.
  • She’s got two sisters.
  • We have many friends here.
  • We’ve got many friends here.

Characteristics

  • He has blue eyes.
  • He’s got blue eyes.
  • The car has a powerful engine.
  • The car’s got a powerful engine.

Illness / Conditions

  • I have a cold.
  • I’ve got a cold.
  • She has a headache.
  • She’s got a headache.

Questions

  • Do you have a pen?
  • Have you got a pen?
  • How many books do you have?
  • How many books have you got?

Negative sentences

  • He hasn’t got a car.
  • I don’t have any money.
  • I haven’t got any money.
  • He doesn’t have a car.

These pairs show how both forms mean the same thing, with “have got” sounding more casual in everyday speech.

Dusking 

B2 – Upper Intermediate

At the end of the day, many people struggle to disconnect from work, technology, and constant stimulation. A growing trend encourages people to pause during dusk, the natural transition from day to night, as a way to slow down, reflect, and prepare for rest. This practice highlights the importance of reconnecting with natural rhythms and finding balance between productivity and well‑being.

Let’s read the article and explore how this approach can help us unwind, restore calm, and create healthier evening routines.

https://theconversation.com/dusking-is-a-trend-aimed-at-helping-people-switch-off-at-the-end-of-the-day-how-does-it-work-277814

Vocabulary Questions:

  1. What does “detriment” mean in this context? “Of course, watching the sunset is hardly a new idea as Gray’s poem shows, but one it seems we may have forgotten to value to our detriment.” Make a sentence using this word and give a synonym.
  2. What does “wind down” mean? “Simply observing changes in light, sound, and atmosphere may also encourage a shift from the constant hustle of the work day to winding down, potentially moving people towards sleep.” Make a sentence using this phrase and give a synonym.
  3. What is the meaning of the phrase “the emergence of something“? “The emergence of evening sounds, and the quiet rhythms that mark the close of the day.” Make a sentence using this phrase and give a synonym.

Discussion Questions:

  1. How do you usually feel at dusk, and what activities do you associate with that time of day?
  2. In what ways might pausing at dusk help people transition from work mode to rest mode?
  3. How does artificial light or technology change the way we experience evening time?
  4. What cultural traditions or personal memories do you connect with dusk?
  5. How could practicing “dusking” influence your sleep or overall well‑being?

Email Fatigue

B2 – Upper Intermediate

In today’s fast‑paced digital world, email has become an essential tool for communication. Yet the constant flow of messages can feel overwhelming, leaving many people drained and less productive. This growing challenge highlights the need to rethink how we manage our inboxes and balance technology with well‑being.

Let’s read the article together to explore why this issue is becoming more common and discover practical ways to address it.

https://mailstrom.co/articles/why-email-fatigue-is-a-growing-problem-and-what-can-be-done-about-it

Vocabulary Questions:

  1. What does “to whittle something down”? “To whittle the volume down to zero can take hours or even days.” Use it in your own sentence. Give a synonym.
  2. What is the meaning of the expression “nagging feeling“? “Plus, there’s that nagging feeling of leaving something undone.
    ” Use it in your own sentence. Give a synonym.
  3. What does “trouble brewing” mean? “If your staff is doing that, there’s a different kind of trouble brewing.” Use it in a sentence. Give a synonym.

Discussion Questions:

  1. How does the constant flow of emails affect your daily productivity?
  2. In what ways can email communication be both helpful and overwhelming?
  3. Why do you think people feel stressed when their inbox is full?
  4. What strategies have you tried (or heard of) to manage email overload?
  5. How might email fatigue impact teamwork and collaboration?