Category: Class

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Ergative Verb

An ergative verb, also known as a labile verb can appear in both:

• a transitive structure (with a direct object), and
• an intransitive structure (where the object becomes the subject)

Crucially, the same participant is involved in both forms.

Diagnostics

To identify an ergative verb:

1. Can the object become the subject without passive marking?
2. Does the meaning remain plausible without an agent?
3. Does it describe a change of state?

Basic Alternation Pattern

Transitive:

• She broke the glass.

Intransitive:

• The glass broke.

“The glass” is:

• Direct object in the first sentence
• Subject in the second

This alternation is called the causative–inchoative alternation.

Key Property

Unlike passives:

• The glass was broken. (passive: implies an agent)
• The glass broke. (ergative: no agent implied)

Ergative forms often suggest spontaneity or lack of external cause.

Common Ergative Verbs

Change-of-state verbs

• break, melt, freeze, crack, shatter, dissolve

Change-of-position/state

• open, close, start, stop, roll, turn

Examples:

• She opened the door. / The door opened.
• They melted the butter. / The butter melted.
• He rolled the ball. / The ball rolled.

Semantic Constraints

Not all verbs alternate.

Typically ergative:

• involve physical or observable change
• allow affected entity to be subject

Not ergative:

• Correct: She kicked the ball.
• Incorrect: The ball kicked.

Because “kick” requires an agent—it doesn’t describe a spontaneous change.

Subtle Meaning Differences

Even when both forms are grammatical, meaning can shift:

• She closed the door. → intentional action
• The door closed. → may imply automatic or unintentional action

Ergative vs Passive 

Compare:

• The window broke. (ergative)
• The window was broken (by someone). (passive)

Extended Patterns

a. With adverbs (cause implied)

• The door suddenly opened.
• The ice slowly melted.

Still ergative, even with implied cause.

b. Instrument subjects (borderline cases)

• The key opened the door.

Not ergative—this is still transitive with a non-human agent.

Cross-Linguistic Insight

The term “ergative” comes from ergative-absolutive languages, where:

• subjects of intransitive verbs pattern like objects of transitive verbs

English is not ergative, but these verbs show ergative-like behavior.

Less Obvious Ergative Verbs

Some are less intuitive:

• The price increased. / They increased the price.
• The temperature dropped. / They dropped the temperature.
• The software crashed. / The update crashed the software.

Ergative vs Middle Voice 

• This book sells well. (middle voice)
• The book sold quickly. (ergative-like)

Middle voice focuses on general property, not a specific event.

Common Errors

Incorrect: The cake baked by itself. (when meaning passive)
Correct: The cake baked. (ergative, neutral)
Correct: The cake was baked. (passive, agent implied)

Incorrect: The ball kicked.
Correct: The ball rolled.
Correct: The ball bounced.

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Indirect Object

An indirect object (IO) typically represents the recipient, beneficiary, or affected participant of the action, while the direct object (DO) is the thing transferred.

She gave him a book.
(IO = him, DO = a book)

At an advanced level, what matters is:

• Which verbs allow indirect objects?
• When the structure is possible?
• How meaning shifts with different constructions?

Diagnostic Tests

To confirm an indirect object:

• Can it move to a “to/for” phrase?
• Can it appear before the direct object?
• Does the verb allow double object structure?

Two Structures

a. Double Object Construction (DOC)

• She sent me an email.
• They offered him a job.

Pattern: Subject + Verb + IO + DO

b. Prepositional Construction

• She sent an email to me.
• They offered a job to him.

Pattern: Subject + Verb + DO + to/for + IO

Semantic Differences 

These forms are not always interchangeable.

a. “To” → Transfer

• give, send, lend, hand, pass
  → movement of something

b. “For” → Benefactive meaning

• buy, make, cook, find
  → doing something for someone
• She baked him a cake. (= for him)
• She baked a cake for him.

However, it is incorrect to say:

• She baked a cake to him.

Verbs That Allow or Reject DOC

Allow both structures:

• give, send, offer, teach, tell

Typically do not allow DOC:

• explain, describe, suggest, mention, introduce

Incorrect: She explained me the problem.
Correct: She explained the problem to me.

Reason: these verbs involve communication of content, not transfer of an object.

Information Structure & Emphasis

DOC vs prepositional form affects focus and flow:

• She gave him a book. → focus on recipient
• She gave a book to him. → focus on object or contrast

Use DOC when:

• Recipient is short, known, or important

Use prepositional form when:

• Object is long/heavy
• Recipient needs emphasis or contrast

Pronoun Constraints

Pronouns strongly prefer DOC:

• Incorrect: She gave me it. 
• Correct: She gave it to me.
• Rare, dialectal, usually avoided: She gave me it. 

Rule: If DO is a pronoun → use prepositional structure

Passivization Patterns

Both objects can sometimes become subjects:

Active:

• She gave him a book.

Passive:

• He was given a book.
• A book was given to him.

Notes:

• “He was given…” is more natural in spoken English
• “A book was given…” is more formal

Indirect Objects vs Prepositional Objects

Not all “to/for + noun” phrases are indirect objects.

Compare:

• She gave him a book. → indirect object
• She gave a book to him. → indirect object (alternate form)

However:

• She spoke to him. → NOT an indirect object
• She depends on him. → NOT an indirect object

Key distinction:

• True indirect objects alternate with DOC
• Prepositional objects cannot

Dative Alternation

The shift between:

• Give him a book.
• Give a book to him.

is called dative alternation.

Not all verbs participate, and constraints include verb semantics, length and weight of phrases, and definiteness and givenness.

Verb semantics

Incorrect: She explained me the problem.

Correct: She explained the problem to me.

Length/weight of phrases

✔ Short + short (both fine):

She gave him a book. / She gave a book to him.

✔ Long DO → prepositional preferred:

Correct: She gave a detailed report about the company’s financial collapse to him.

Awkward: She gave him a detailed report about the company’s financial collapse.

✔ Long IO → DOC preferred:

Correct: She gave the student who had been waiting for hours a copy.

Heavier ending: She gave a copy to the student who had been waiting for hours.

Definiteness and givenness

I finally gave him the book.

I gave the book to a stranger I met on the train.

She gave the manager a report. (manager known) / She gave a report to a manager. (new/unspecified)

I didn’t give the book to John—I gave it to her.

Edge Cases & Subtleties

a. Idiomatic DOC

• Give it a try.
• Pay me a visit.
• Wish you luck.

These don’t always allow alternation:

• Wish luck to you. (less natural)

b. Abstract Transfer

• She taught me patience.
• They showed us kindness.

These are not physical objects, but they are still treated like DOs.

Ambiguity Avoidance

• She sent a letter to her friend in Paris. (Who is in Paris?)

Prepositional forms can create ambiguity DOC avoids:

• She sent her friend in Paris a letter.

Common Errors

Incorrect: He suggested me a plan.
Correct: He suggested a plan to me.
Correct: He suggested that I follow a plan.

Incorrect: She described me the situation.
Correct: She described the situation to me.

Incorrect: They bought to me a gift.
Correct: They bought me a gift.
Correct: They bought a gift for me.

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Direct Object

A direct object is the element that receives the action of a transitive verb. At an advanced level, the key is not just what it is—but how it behaves across structures.

Test: Ask “what?” or “whom?” after the verb—but be careful, this doesn’t always work cleanly with complex constructions.

Structural Variations

a. Noun Phrases

• She rejected the proposal outright.
• They discussed several controversial issues.

The object can be expanded with modifiers, determiners, and embedded clauses.

b. Clausal Direct Objects

Entire clauses can function as direct objects:

• I believe that he is mistaken. (that-clause)
• She denied having seen the document. (-ing clause)
• They decided to postpone the meeting. (infinitive clause)

c. Bare Clause Objects (Zero “that”)

• I think you’re wrong.
• She said she’d call later.

Common in spoken and informal written English.

Object vs Complement 

Advanced learners often confuse direct objects with subject complements:

• She became a doctor. (not a direct object)
• She met a doctor.  (direct object)

Rule: If the verb is linking (become, seem, appear), the following element is a complement, not an object.

Double Object Constructions

Some verbs take two objects:

• She gave him a gift.

Structure:

• Indirect object (recipient)
• Direct object (thing given)

Alternative:

• She gave a gift to him.

Not all verbs allow both forms:

• Correct: give, send, offer
• Incorrect: explain (We cannot say: explain me the problem)

Object Shift & Weight

Heavier objects tend to move:

• She explained the situation to me. (preferred)
• She explained to me the situation that had been developing over several years. (less natural)

This relates to end-weight principle.

Passivization

Only direct objects typically become subjects in passive sentences:

• Active: They approved the proposal.
• Passive: The proposal was approved.

With double objects:

• She gave him a gift →
  • He was given a gift.
  • A gift was given to him.

Subtle differences in focus and formality.

Objects in Complex Predicates

a. Object + Complement

• They elected him president.
• She painted the door red.

Structure:

• Direct object + object complement (renames/describes it)

b. Object + Infinitive

• I want you to leave.
• They forced him to resign.

“You” and “him” are objects of the main verb but subjects of the infinitive clause.

Verbs That Look Transitive but Aren’t

Some verbs appear to take objects but don’t:

• She slept a deep sleep. (cognate object; stylistic)
• He smiled a strange smile.

These are rare and often literary.

Ellipsis and Implied Objects

• Have you eaten? (object omitted: “food”)
• I already finished. (context supplies object)

Common in conversation; object is understood but not expressed.

Idiomatic and Fixed Expressions

• Take advantage (of something)
• Make sense
• Catch a break

The object may be part of a fixed phrase, not freely replaceable.

Diagnostic Strategies

Instead of relying only on “what/whom,” use:

• Passivization test → Can it become the subject?
• Pronoun substitution → Can it become it/them?
• Verb type check → Is the verb transitive?

Common Errors

Incorrect: She suggested me to go.
Correct: She suggested that I go / suggested going

Incorrect: They discussed about the issue.
Correct: They discussed the issue

Incorrect: He explained me the rules.
Correct: He explained the rules to me

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Question Forms

Question forms are primarily built using inversion, where you switch the order of the subject and the auxiliary verb. While there are many ways to ask something, most fall into a few key grammatical categories. 

Yes/No Questions

These are “closed” questions that require a simple “yes” or “no” answer.

Structure: Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb?

Examples:

• Are you hungry? (using the verb “be”)
• Do you like coffee? (using “do” for simple present)
• Can you swim? (using a modal verb)

Wh- Questions (Open Questions)

These use “question words” to ask for specific information. A common formula to remember the order is QUASM: QUestion word, Auxiliary, Subject, Main verb.

Question Words: Who (people), What (things), Where (place), When (time), Why (reason), and How (manner).

Example: Where do you live?

Subject vs. Object Questions

Object Questions

Ask about the receiver of an action. They use the standard auxiliary inversion.

Example: What did you eat? (Answer: I ate an apple.)

Subject Questions

Ask about the person or thing doing the action. These do not use an auxiliary verb (like do/did) or inversion.

Example: Who ate the apple? (Answer: John ate the apple.)

Question Tags

These are short questions added to the end of a statement to check for agreement or confirmation.

Rule: If the statement is positive, the tag is negative (and vice versa).

Example: It’s a nice day, isn’t it?

Indirect Questions

These are more polite ways to ask questions, often starting with phrases like “Can you tell me…”.

Rule: Unlike direct questions, they use statement word order (Subject + Verb).

Example: Could you tell me where the station is? (Direct: Where is the station?)

Common Errors

Incorrect: I wonder where is he.

Correct: I wonder where he is.

Incorrect: Who did break this? (unless emphasizing)

Correct: Who broke this?

Incorrect: How come did she leave?

Correct: How come she left?

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Intensifier

An intensifier makes another word stronger. We usually think of adverbs (like very or extremely), but adjectives can also act as intensifiers in advanced English. They often appear before nouns or in fixed expressions to add emphasis.

Adjectives used for emphasis before nouns

Some adjectives do not add new meaning. They mainly increase intensity.

Common examples:

• complete “It was a complete disaster.”
• total “We had a total failure.”
• absolute “He is an absolute beginner when it comes to using computers.”
• utter “He felt utter shock.“
• pure “That is pure nonsense.”
• sheer “It was sheer luck.”

These adjectives emphasize the noun rather than describe it in detail.

Fixed expressions (strong collocations)

Some intensifying adjectives are only used with certain nouns.

Examples:

• heavy rain (not strong rain)
• deep sleep
• strong opinion
• great importance

These combinations sound natural because they are standard usage.

Adjectives as intensifiers in informal English

In spoken or informal English, adjectives can act like adverbs.

Examples:

• That movie was crazy good.
• I am dead tired.
• This is real easy.
• That was insanely fast. (mixed with adverb form)

This use is common but should be used carefully in formal contexts.

Gradable vs non-gradable adjectives

Some adjectives are already strong (non-gradable), so we use intensifying adjectives instead of very.

Examples:

• absolutely amazing (not very amazing)
• completely exhausted
• totally impossible

These often pair with strong intensifiers like:

• absolutely
• completely
• totally

Subtle meaning differences

Compare:

• a big mistake → normal description
• a terrible mistake → emotional meaning
• a complete mistake → emphasizes totality

Intensifying adjectives often add emotion or emphasis, not just size or quality.

Common errors

incorrect: very complete disaster
correct: a complete disaster

incorrect: totally very tired
correct: completely exhausted / very tired

incorrect: strong rain
correct: heavy rain

B2 – Upper Intermediate

Time and Place Subordinating Conjunctions

Time and place subordinating conjunctions are words that connect a dependent clause to a main clause.
They show when something happens or where something happens.

A subordinating conjunction makes one clause dependent. It cannot stand alone.

Common Time Conjunctions

These show when something happens:

• After: “We went for ice cream after we finished dinner”.
• Before: “Wash your hands before you eat”.
• When: “I was sleeping when the phone rang”.
• While: “She sang while she was walking”.
• Until/Till: “I will wait until you arrive”.
• Since: “I have been here since 8:00 AM”.
• As soon as/Once: “As soon as the sun sets, we will start the fire”.
• Whenever: “She smiles whenever she sees him”.
• By the time: “By the time we arrived, the movie had ended”.

Common Place Conjunctions

These show where something happens:

• Where: “He hid where no one could find him.”
• Wherever: “You can sit wherever you like”.
• Everywhere / Anywhere: “Everywhere I go, you seem to be nearby.”

Sentence Structure

You can place the subordinate clause at the beginning or end.

If the subordinate clause comes first, use a comma:

• When the class ended, we went home.
• Wherever she goes, she takes her dog.

If it comes second, no comma is needed:

• We went home when the class ended.
• She takes her dog wherever she goes.

Advanced Usage Notes

A. “As” vs “While”

• While = two actions happening at the same time

Example: I listened to music while I studied.

• As = simultaneous actions, often with a sense of change or progression

Example: As I walked home, it started to rain.

B. “Until” vs “By the time”

• Until = continuous action up to a point

Example: I waited until she arrived.

• By the time = completed before another action

Example: By the time she arrived, I had left.

Common Errors

Incorrect: I will call you when I will arrive.

Correct: I will call you when I arrive.

Incorrect: Where I go, I will call you.

Correct: Wherever I go, I will call you.

Incorrect: I’ll finish the report after I will get home.

Correct: I’ll finish the report after I get home.

Incorrect: I have lived here since five years. (Duration)
Correct: I have lived here since 2019. (Point in time)
Note: Use “for” for duration: “I have lived here for five years.”

Incorrect: The power went out while I dropped my phone. (Dropping is instantaneous)
Correct: The power went out when I dropped my phone.
Correct: The power went out while I was cooking dinner. (Cooking is a duration)

Incorrect: That was the year where I graduated.
Correct: That was the year when I graduated.